Behaviourist approach- component 1 Flashcards
assumptions, relationship formation, therapies, classic evidence
1
Q
Describe the assumption ‘humans are born like a blank slate’
A
- mind is a ‘tabula rasa’ when born (blank slate).
- not born with built in mental content (thinking and emotion do not drive behaviour)
- all behaviour learnt from interactions with environment (do not think about behaviour, but respond passively to environmental stimuli)
- supports nurture argument, not nature
- ignores factors such as genetics, physiology and evolution (nature) in explaining behaviour= environmental determinism (behaviour determined by environment we grew up in- associations made early on in life and early rewards/ punishments pre determine behaviour.
2
Q
Describe the assumption of ‘behaviour learned through conditioning’ with examples
A
Classical:
- behaviour learned through association
- Pavlov’s dogs (1902):
BEFORE conditioning- food is UCS and salivation is UCR
DURING conditioning, bell sound given alongside UCS and this is repeated many times, so association occurs. Bell is NS.
AFTER conditioning, bell is CS, producing a new CR (salivation)
Operant:
- behaviour learned through reinforcement (increases chance of behaviour occurring again)
- B.F. Skinner (1938)- Skinner’s box showed animals can be positively reinforced with food to behave in certain ways. Animal presses lever in box that results in food pellet being given, so animal likely to repeat behaviour as it has been POSITIVELY reinforced.
- NEGATIVE reinforcement strengthens behaviour by individual escaping something unpleasant e.g. completing hw results in avoiding detention, so more likely to complete hw next time.
- behaviour learnt through PUNISHMENT (weakens behaviour and decreases likelihood of behaviour reoccurring e.g. if skinners rats received electric shock when lever pressed, less likely to press it again.
3
Q
Describe the assumption ‘humans and animals learn in similar ways’
A
- laws of learning same for humans and animals
- can make generalisations about human behaviour based upon results from studies on animals
- results from Pavlov’s dogs study (showed dogs can be conditioned to salivate at bell sound) applied to humans
- e.g. in behaviourist therapies to overcome phobias, these principles applied such as in systematic desensitisation (SD) (client learns to associate phobic stimulus with feelings of relaxation)
- operant conditioning principles applied to humans to shape behaviour.
- e.g. TOKEN ECONOMY used in prisons and education. desirable behaviour reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards such as sweets and cigarettes
4
Q
How can the assumption ‘behaviour learned through conditioning’ be applied to romantic relationships?
A
- Reinforcement models of attraction state we are more likely to form relationships with people who reinforce us.
- social exchange theory (SET) states that positive or negative feelings about relationship depend upon: 1. their perception of rewards and costs the relationship results in.
2. perception on what they deserve in relationship.
3. the probability they could have a relationship with someone else - costs= time, financial, emotional turmoil
- rewards= physical attraction, having someone who does things for us, financial gain, validated attitudes.
- SET states relationships formed with those who minimise costs and maximise rewards.
- emphasises humans learn to have relationships through reinforcement
5
Q
How can the assumption ‘humans are born like a blank slate’ be applied to mother and child relationship
A
- Mary Ainsworth suggests child born with blank slate and learns how to form relationships from first relationship they have with primary caregiver.
- this relationship acts as internal model for all future relationships
- first relationship is secure and categorised by warmth= child forms secure, happy relationships
- first relationship insecure and categorised by rejection and confusion= child uses this as template and may form relationship with these negative aspects in future.
6
Q
How can the assumption ‘humans and animals learn in similar ways’ be applied to mother and child relationships?
A
- Lorenz studied goslings to explore mother and child relationship
- split cluster of goose eggs in 2. Placed group 1 under mother goose and group 2 in incubator
- Lorenz ensured he was first thing group 2 saw when they hatched and when they did, he made mother goose quacking sound. Goslings regarded him as mother and followed him
- group 1 followed mother goose
- Lorenz found geese follow first moving object they see (imprinting)
- research shows findings from animal research can be applied to human mother and child relationships
7
Q
How does the approach apply to therapy, systematic desensitisation (SD)?
A
- behaviourist approach assumes behaviour is conditioned
- classical conditioning means new behaviour learnt through association
- operant conditioning involves learning through reinforcement
- approach assumes abnormal behaviour caused by maladaptive faulty learning, e.g. someone with a phobia may become classically conditioned to associate fear with stimulus e.g. spiders
- avoidance of the stimulus acts as reinforcement as they feel calm when not around stimulus
- aim of SD is to break down faulty maladaptive learning and help person re learn a more functional response
- operant conditioning also used as person progresses through anxiety hierarchy and at each level feel increasingly relaxed in presence of feared stimulus- reinforcement
- this pos reinforcement encourages client to keep moving up hierarchy until they associate relaxation with feared stimulus.
8
Q
Main components of SD
A
- therapist teaches client relaxation techniques so client can establish new stimulus-response link to feared object. Over time, client will respond to once feared object in relaxed state not with fear. The relaxation inhibits anxiety (RECIPROCAL INHIBITION)
- with help from therapist, client produces anxiety hierarchy, starting from least feared scenario to most feared, each level slightly more anxiety provoking. Traditionally conducted using in vivo desensitisation (confront object/situation associated with phobia in real life). Now more commonly, in vitro is used (object/situation associated with phobia only imagined.)
- client and therapist attempt to work way up hierarchy, at each stage using relaxation techniques. Cannot move to next stage until client demonstrates calm and relaxed response. complete when top of hierarchy reached and maladaptive response to phobia unlearnt and replaced with calm relaxed learnt response (reciprocal inhibition/ counter conditioning)
9
Q
Evaluate the effectiveness of SD
A
- P- SD proven to be successful at treating specific phobias that are learnt problems.
E- Research into effectiveness was carried out by Rothbaum et al. (2000) who used systematic desensitisation to treat participants with a phobia of flying. Rothbaum compared participants with a phobia of flying who received SD against a control group who did not. The research found that following SD, 93% agreed to take a trial flight and had much lower levels of anxiety than the control group. These positive effects were found six months after treatment.
E- This evidence shows that SD is a very effective treatment for specific phobias, such as fear of flying. The effects are apparent immediately, as well as some time after therapy is completed.
L- This shows the effectiveness of the therapy at treating learnt specific phobias. SD can be useful as it can improve quality of life e.g. someone may need to fly due to work, so SD removes phobia so individual can continue job and be a productive member of society. - P- There is evidence to suggest that SD is not effective for all types of phobias, such as more generalised phobias (agoraphobia) or ancient phobias.
E- Martin Seligman (1970) argued that humans and animals genetically programmed to associate potential life threatening stimuli and fear. The stimuli are ancient fears, which are things that would be dangerous in evolutionary past (snakes, heights, strangers). It would have been adaptive to avoid stimuli. Explains why modern objects e.g. cars and toasters less likely to be feared than ancient fears as modern objects not a danger in evolutionary past.
E- This evidence illustrates that SD is NOT appropriate for ALL phobias and thus has some limitations in terms of effectiveness.
L- due to ineffectiveness, people with other fears cannot be treated with SD, such as agoraphobia or fear of death. These people left to find another treatment. - Symptom substitution. treats symptoms, not cause, so symptoms will resurface possibly in another form.
10
Q
Evaluate the ethical issues of SD
A
- P- Valid consent is able to be given
E- Valid consent is obtained from the client before SD can begin. Clients usually seek help from a therapist for a specific phobia and as such are usually of ‘healthy mind’ (do not have schizophrenia/depression etc). They are therefore able to understand the process of SD and are able to give their valid consent to participate. The client is able to withdraw from the therapy at any point during the process (free will) and the introduction of relaxation techniques means clients rarely feel distress
E- therefore, client is happy with the process that will entail before they begin and is aware of any distress that may possibly arise.
L- This reinforces the fact that SD is ethical with regard to consent. In addition to this, SD is more ethical than other therapeutic approaches because of the equitable relationship between the therapist and the client. - P- therapy moves at client’s own pace
E- SD increases the individual’s feeling of control. The role of the therapist is to guide and help the client, but they do not play the central role in the therapy process. This is unlike other therapeutic approaches such as dream analysis.
E- if client does not want to move on, they do not have to, alleviating pressure and anxiety if they were forced to move to higher level in hierarchy
L- As a result, the risk of dependence on the therapist or attribution of success to the therapist is far lower, as the therapist is external to the therapy. This is therefore a more ethical approach to treatment. Furthermore, client is not emotionally/psychologically harmed as therapy moves at the pace they desire.
11
Q
Evaluation of SD: Conclusion
A
In conclusion, it is clear to see from the evidence that SD is a very effective therapy for specific phobias, with very few of the side effects associated with other therapies. Ethically, it is sound and offers a safe way for clients to face their phobia and improve their lives. However, questions are raised regarding its universal application to all phobias, and indeed other mental illnesses. Furthermore, critics argue that SD does not address the root cause of the phobia. This limits its long-term success.
12
Q
Outline the Methodology used in the study by Watson and Rayner (1920): Conditioned emotional reactions
A
- Involved one participant, a male baby aged 11 months referred to as ‘Albert B’ but is now known as ‘Little Albert’
- Not a case study because the focus was only on Albert’s response to conditioning, and was not an in depth analysis of the individual and apects of their life, which is what a case study would involve
- study was not an experiment because there was only one condition. It is simply an investigation to determine the effects of certain stimuli. Researchers called it an experiment but the use of this term has become more resricted. Study conducted under controlled conditions so study could be described as a controlled observation,
13
Q
Outline the Procedures in the research by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- emotional tests:Albert’s existing emotional responses tested by confronting him with certain objects including a white rat, dog, rabbit, monkey, cotton wool etc, which was the first time he had seen the objects. He was tested with a loud sound made by striking a hammer on a steel bar.
- Stage 1 involved establishing a conditioned emotional response and involved presenting Albert with a white rat. When Albert reaches for it, a loud noise is made behind him by hitting a steel bar with a hammer
- Alberts behaviour observed and recorded
- **Stage 2 ** involved showing albert rat with no sound to see if the previous experience affected his behaviour with the rat. After, albert was exposed to the rat and the loud noise paired together at the same time multiple times
- Stage 3 involved albert being presented with the rat and other objects such as wooden blocks, a rabbit, a dog, cotton wool, a seal fur coat and Watson’s hair, to see if the learned link between rat and loud noise would be generalised to other objects
- Stage 4 involved albert being taken to a new environment (a well-lit lecture room and placed on a table in the centre of the room)
- Stage 5 involved final tests with a Santa Claus Mask, a fur coat, the rat, the rabbit, the dog and the blocks (control)
14
Q
Outline the Findings , from the emotional testsconducted in the study conducted by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- albert showed no fear response to objects before conditioning
- hospital attendants and albert’s mother reported they had never seen albert in a state of fear or rage and he practically never cried
- first time the loud noise was made albert started crying and his lips trembled
15
Q
Outine the findings from stage 1 in the study conducted by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- This stage involved establishing a conditioned emotional response
- when albert was confronted with joint stimulation of the white rat and the loud noise, albert jumped and fell forward, buried his head on the table, but did not cry. He whimpered and jumeped when the loud noise was made a second time
16
Q
Outline the findings from stage 2 in the study by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- this stage involved testing the conditioned emotional response
- when retested for the emotional response, albert showed a new response to the rat. This time he did not reach for the rat but just stared at it. Albert withdrew his hand when the rat touched him
- albert given blocks to play with (control condition), which he did happily, showing his cautious response was only to the rat and shows his general emotional state was normal
- with more joint stimulation (rat and sound), albert cried
17
Q
Outline the findings from stage 3 in the study by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- generalisation stage
- imediately responded with fear when shown rat so had retained conditioned emotional response to rat.
- reponded to rabbit with crying and crawling away, but showed a less significant/ no fear response to all other objects shown to him
18
Q
Outline the Findings from stage 4 in the study by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- involved changing the environment study took place in
- responses to rat, rabbit and dog less extreme than before
- after more joint stimulation (rat and noise), the conditioned fear response was stronger
- even when fear response was weak, it was noticeably different from his reaction to the building blocks, which he always played with happily.
- this showed a distinct learned response persisted towards furry objects
19
Q
Outline the findings from stage 5 in the study conducted by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- this stage studied the effect of time on the conditioned emotional response
- albert responded to the test objects in a different way to control objects (blocks)
- reaction to furry objects was not as extreme as previously but he clearly avoided them and whimpered and sometimes cried.
20
Q
Outline the Conclusions made by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- demonstrates how easy a fear response can be created
- only 2 joint stimulations (rat and noise) were needed to create the conditioned emotional response
- study demonstrates that conditioned responses generalise to other stimuli
- watson and rayner suggest its probable that many other phobias are acquired in this way, through association
- At the time of the study, (1920), freudian explanations were favoured in psychology and watson and rayner addressed these ideas specificcally.
- they noted albert often sucked his thumb when he was scared, possibly a form of sexual stimulation. Watson and Rayner suggest freud may have been wrong in presuming such stimulation is pleasure seeking, but may instead be to block fear
- Watson and Rayner describe a scene where little albert is an adult and may seek help from a freudian therapist for a phobia of furry objects. the therapist would analyse albert’s fear and would propose young albert had tried to play with the pubic hair of his mother and was violently scolded for it. The scolding would cause albert to push the memory into his unconscious mind, but would continue to have an effect and lead to albert’s phobia.
- watson and rayner suppose that a fear could actually be conditioned by the experience with a mother’s pubic hair, rather than the freudian explanation
21
Q
Evaluate the methodology and procedures of the study by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- conducted under controlled ‘laboratory’ (dark room) conditions, where extraneous variables could be controlled
- the controls in place were that there was a baseline condition where albert’s pre-manipulation behaviour was established to show he was not a fearful child, the was a control condition in the study (building blocks) to show the fear responses were exclusive to furry objects, and finally, films were used to record behaviour so the findings can be confirmed by others
- these controls enable us to conclude that the observed effects were due to conditioning, not other sources
- only one participant used so any conclusions must be drawn from one person
- Watson and Rayner describe albert as calm and even tempered, so suggest that if he had been emotionally unstable, he may have responded with even greater fear and the conditioned response may have persisted longer.
- as sample is one individual, it’s difficult to know whether the observed responses are unique to this individual or if they can be applied to all people.
22
Q
Evaluate the Ethical and Social implications of the study by Watson and Rayner (1920)
A
- Watson and Rayner seemed unsure about whether they had created excessive fear in albert. From statements made in their article from the study, it suggests that they were aware that what they were doing was distressing to albert
- Watson and Rayner stated they felt that what they confronted albert with was fairly normal in everyday life, but life in the hospital he lived at had just protected him from it. They used this to justify what albert experienced in the study
- Watson and Rayner caused a risk of harm by creating fear in a young child. The researchers noted that albert sucked his thumb when he was scared to calm himself down, but it also reduced the effect of the loud noise on conditioning him. The researchers removed albert’s thumb from his mouth so that the conditioned response could be obtained, so made sure he was really scared. This means they made his fearful experience worse
- researchers intended to remove the learned conditioned responses but could not do this as albert was removed from the hospital. They believed the responses would be likely to persist unless they were accidently removed. The researchers should have anticipated this issue at the start of study and ensured procedures were put in place to prevent this from happening, by ensuring ‘unconditioning’ took place
23
Q
Evaluate the study by Watson and Rayner (1920) in terms of existing alternative evidence
A
- The Two Process Theory: a criticism of classical conditioning as an explanation for phobias is that i cannot explain how they persist. When albert did not experience the rat and loud noise together, the conditioned response lessened. If only classical conditioning was involved, it might just diasappear over time
- O.H.Mowrer (1947) explained why the conditioned response doesn’t disappear. In the 2 process model, the firstvstage is classical conditioning and the second stage is operant conditioning. Once a fear is learned through classical conditioning an individual will avoid the situation producing the fear. The avoidance of the phobic stimulus reduces fear and thus is reinforcing. This is an example of negative reinforcement (escaping the unpleasant situation) and the fact that no anxiety is experienced from avoidance is positively reinforcing. The reinforcement (operant conditioning) maintains the avoidance response.
- another issue with conditioning as an explanation for phobias is that learning is not the only explanation. There are other alternative explanations for the origins of phobias. biological preparedness is another explanation. Martin Seligman (1970) argued that animals and humans are genetically programmed to rapidly learn an association between certain stimuli and fear. These stimuli are referred to as ancient fears, things that would have been dangerous in our evolutionary past e.g. snakes, strangers etc. It is adaptive to rapidly learn to avoid these stimuli.
