cold war Flashcards
end of cold war- arms race
- Escalation of arms race as due to viewing nuclear weapons as necessary to safeguard their interests, made each other vulnerable and cycle repeat, USA fear of falling behind vs USSR need to catch up
- Caused economic strain on both superpowers, affected USSR more relative to US due to high level of military spending
- US had increased military spending and invested in strategic defence initiative
- USSR occupied by Afghan war
- Military Overspending = The USSR’s heavy investment in military and defense spending during the Cold War placed an unsustainable burden on its economy. The arms race with the United States drained resources that could have been used for domestic development.
- It could be argued by 1982, the Soviet economy was nearing a collapse resulting in Gorbachev introducing reforms and put an end to the arms race
- Under Brezhnev, the USSR achieved nuclear parity with the USA but at a cost of spending 25% of GDP. The USA was only spending 4-6%!
- 1986 Chernboyl with a exploded reactor in Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine also heightened Gorbachev’s awareness of the dangers of nuclear power
- The explosion showed that even without war and without nuclear missiles nuclear power could destroy mankind
- 1991, both US and USSR signed the strategic arms reduction treaty (START I) which limited nuclear arms officially ending the cold war (was signed as a result of arms race)
end of cold war- economic issues
- By the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Soviet economy was increasingly unable to keep pace with the West, particularly in terms of technology and the provision of consumer goods. Gorbachev himself acknowledged that the USSR was “spending too much money on military hardware” and neglecting consumer industries
Spending on:
Coat of arms race
Unrealistic five year plan production targets
Poor infrastructure
Overconcentration on heavy industry
Corrupt soviet leadership - USSR was spending a staggering 25% of its GDP on the military, compared to the US’s 4-6%
- Cuba recieved $4 billion in soviet aid and subsidies, vietnam received $6 billion, warsaw pact given $3 billion in oil subsidies
- Also economically drained by the burden of maintaining the Soviet empire with East European Satellite States-> had to devote energy supplies and raw materials with low prices while in return they received poor quality materials
- unbalanced expenditure led to a significant decrease in the standard of living in the Soviet Union, diverting resources from crucial sectors and contributing to a declining quality of life for ordinary citizens
- Also had other economic commitments, such as the war in Afghanistan and the support of satellite states
- Overall had inherent limitations and fundamental weaknesses in the Soviet economy -> inefficient, lacked dynamism + innovation of market-based systems, struggled in adaptability -> hindered the livelihood of the citizens -> could not continue with the cold war
end of cold war- role of leaders
- Gorbachev
- Became leader of the USSR in 1985, he introduced two new reforming ideas: Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring). These were intended to modernize the Soviet Union but had unintended consequences.
- Perestroika disrupted the already fragile economy, while glasnost exposed the extent of corruption and inefficiency, fueling public discontent
- The USSR couldn’t compete with the USA in the arms race. Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative was too technologically advanced for the USSR
- Success in the summit meetings in the mid 1980s between Gorbachev and Reagan = desire to reach a deal
- In 1988, Gorbachev improved further relations by announcing his withdrawal of Soviet troops in Afghanistan.
- Gorbachev policy of Glasnost and Perestroika and unintended unleashing public criticism and political pushback, hence exposing the shortcomings of the Soviet Union - Reagan
- Some historians argue that the policies implemented under the Reagan administration pressured the USSR into ending the Cold War
- The New Cold War started by Reagan in 1982 = Increased USA military spending by 13% and introduced the SDI programme. This pushed the Soviet economy to breaking point
- Detente laid the foundation of the ‘Second Cold War’
- Reagan’s personality = Reagan willing to compromise and negotiate, express hatred towards communism, position of strength, and hard-line republican.
- willing to moderate and then to abandon personal convictions to achieve genuine rapprochement - Foreign policy for both Leaders:
- Both leaders wanted to emphasize cooperation over confrontation and were willing to reduce arms, especially for Reagan, who had a hardline stance and military build up but was still willing to negotiate and initiate dialogue with Gorbachev
- Some historians who place emphasis on Reagan’s role may argue that the combination of military and ideological pressure gave the Soviets little choice but to abandon expansionism abroad, therefore, he was successful in pushing the Soviet economy to the breaking point
end of of cold war- nationalist movements
- Nationalist movements grew across Eastern Europe in the 1980s as a result of the interplay of economic collapse and ideological/social decline
- Many in places like East Germany, Czechoslovakia and Poland grew disillusioned with the Communist Party. It seemed to have no interest in reform and was repressive.
- Many were captivated by the allure of Western radio and television, witnessing a stark contrast to their own reality. The winds of Glasnost and Perestroika ushered in a newfound freedom, empowering citizens to voice their criticisms of their leaders, opening the door to a world of possibilities.
- Helsinki Accords that were previously signed in 1975 encouraged dissent in the Eastern Bloc to speak out against human rights abuse
In December 1988, Gorbachev gave a speech to the UN announcing that the USSR would cut its troop commitments to the Warsaw Pact by ½ million men. - This was a complete overturn of the Brezhnev Doctrine – using force to rule Eastern Europe. He seemed to be saying that he wouldn’t stop people in Eastern Europe from choosing their own rulers
- allowed these nationalist forces to gain strength and ultimately led to the independence of Eastern European states and the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union.
- The desire for national identity and sovereignty, fueled in part by a comparison with the freedoms and relative prosperity of the West, proved to be a powerful force in undermining the Soviet system
cold war conferences
Tehran 1943
- roosevelt, churchill and stalin
- had not yet launched second front in europe to take on some of USSR’s buden of confronting germans, suspicion that they were deliberately delaying the offensive in hopes of seeing the soviet union permanently weakened by the continuing German onslaught
- learned from failure of TOV but agreed that it would be an unconditional surrender of Germany
- USSR concerned with post war borders by gaining territory from poland, they would keep territory seized from poland while poland gain territory from germany
- united nations agreed upon to settle international disputes through collective security
- tensions mostly between churchill and stalin, roosevelt more wary of british imperialism rather than soviet communism
yalta 1945
- germany on verge of defeat, second front openned, japanese near defeat
- allies agreed germany would disarmed, demilitarized, denazified and divided
- post war germany divided into four zones between USA, USSR, UK and france, governed by ACC allied control council
- stalin demanded large percentage of reparation’s, germany would pay $20 billion, 50% go to USSR
- agreement of free elections in poland in exchange for territory, agreement to join japan war
- stalin agreed that countries in eastern europe would be able to decide who governed them in free elections, perceived by USA and UK as biggest achievement
- agreed that soviet union would join the UN, five permanent members of security council
potsdam 1945
- roosevelt died replaced by truman who chose to adopt a more hardline, get tough policy
- germany surrendered
- clement attlee because prime minister
- day after potsdam conference US successfully tested its first atomic bomb
- agreement that denazification and demilitarization would be conducted in their own zones, economy of germany run as whole
- soviets to recieve 25 % of reparation bill from westenr zones
- disagreements over EE and poland, specifically truman wanted to reorganize the polish government, did not trust the free elections despite Stalin offering to implement london poles in governmnet, disagreement over percentage agreement, spheres of influence discussed in terms of percentages, did not want EE countries under Stalin rule
differing ideology
USA:
- capitalist ideology belief that individuals should be able to compete with each other with minimal state interference and make as much money as they wish
- individuals working for individual reward
- individuals choose the governmnet through voting, range of political parties to choose from
- individuals all have rights such as freedom of speech and freedom of press
- liberal democracy
- economically needed to establish markets and open doors for free trade
- desire to avoid another economic crisis that led to the rise of Nazis
- after WW2 USA emerged as number 1 air force power in the world
- failure of france and britain had shifted them to second rank powers
- USA comitted to open trade or liberal trade, willing to play an active role in avoiding emergence of prewar tariffs and trade blocs, needed to prevent instability ine urope
USSR:
- belief that capitalism creates division between rich and poor, thus everything should be state owned on behalf of the people
- good distributed to individuals by the state, everyone gets what they need, working for the collective good
- communist party represents the views of all workers and rules on behalf of the people, one party state
- underlying tensions due to policy of appeasemnet where allies believed soviet communism was a bigger threat than german facism
- economic aims of securing borders and recovering from the effects of WW2
- Stalinism ideology, policies including collectivization of all farms, led to deaths of millions of agricultural workers, five year plans in industry which increased production, great terror purging of political opponents
- stalinism referred to ruthless maintence of power by eliminating opposing leaders, groups, basis of paranoia and violence
- after WW2 USSR emerged as number one land force power in the world
- USSR after WW2 lacked any strong military neighbors therefore became a regional power, took on germany’s role in supporting EE countries
salami tactics
- soviets supervise the organization of government, then each of the opposing parties sliced off, then only communists left for baggage trained leaders from moscow to take over
- baggage trained leaders considered trustworthy by soviets, ensure that post war government would be dominated by moscow communist
poland:
- 246 candidates of polish peasant part disqualified, 149 arrested and 18 murdered, 1 million voters taken off elecotal register
- occured all across EE countries, only czechslovakia and finland with resemblance of democracy
- pro communist rebellions in greece and turkey, allies believed USSR were supporting and directing these rebellions
- communist parties were growing increasingly stronger in post war europe due to economic depivations and hardships from war
long telegram/ iron curtain speech
- george f kennan 1946 sent long telegram to US state department on nature of soviet conduct and foreign policy
- belief that soviet system was a threat to the peace and hostile to the west
- soviet perspective nothing but evil in the outside wnviroment
- logic of force argument where it would easily withdraw when strong resistance was shown, led to hardening attitudes in USA which led to development of US policy of containment
- same fear Novikov, soviet ambassafor to US also sent telegram stating that US policy was imperialist, belief that US expansionist policies seen in military and arms development
iron curtain 1946:
- gave speech in missouri with Truman sitting behind him
- The term symbolized efforts by the Soviet Union to block itself and its satellite states from open contact with the West and non-Soviet-controlled areas.
- Churchill emphasized the need for Anglo-American cooperation to counter the growing influence of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe.
- popularized the term “Iron Curtain” to describe the political, military, and ideological barrier created by the Soviet Union across Europe, separating Western nations from Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe
- led to USSR outrage as churchill compared stalin to hitler, saw the speech as racist and a call to war
- led to hardening of opinions of both sides, led to USSR withdrawl from the IMF, increase in antiwest propoganda and new five year economic plan of self strengthening
truman doctrine
- trumans speech in congress 1947, belief that US had obligation to support the people resisting attempts of outside pressures
- marked radical change in US foreign policy of isolationism
- in response of unstable situation in turkey and greece
- british had restored greek monarchy but communist guerillas continued to resist in countryside, british government could no longer offer assistance to greek government or support the greek government and army financially due to debt
- US did not want to risk potential communist takeover of a strategically important european country, therefore sent aid and military advisers to greece
- soviets saw this as evidence of expansion of sphere of influence, beginning of their policy of containment
marshall plan/ dollar imperialism
- marshall plan was natural continutation of truman doctrine, economic extension
- designed to give immedite economic help to europe
- set strict criteria for qualifying for american aid including investigating financial records of applicant countries
- invited the USSR to join the plan claimed that aid not directed at or agaisnt anyone
- aims to revive european economies to ensure political and social stability and safeguard future of US economy
- bill allocated $17 billion in aid
- soviets rejected plan, cited as prime example of dollar imperialism, seen as establishing a European empire by increasing dependence on US which would lead to political control
- placing european countries under the economic and political control of the USA and direct interference within the countries, intended to split europe into two camps
comintern/ cominform
- response to the marshal plan led to molotov plan which were bilateral trade agreements aimed to tie the economies of eastern europe to the USSR
- ended up with creation of COMECON, a centralized agency which linked eastern bloc countries to moscow
- designed to stimulate and control economic development, while supporting collectivization of agriculture and development of heavy industry
COMINFORM
- created to increase Stalin control over communist parties
0 west concerned that it would actively spread communism and destabilize the democratic government in the west’s sphere of influence
detente causes- political
Political Factors:
- Soviets also saw the PRC as its main rival and thus wanted to reduce tension with the USA
- needed to keep china isolated from the west by improving relations with the west
- The US, therefore, exploited the rift between China and the Soviet Union. seen in Nixon’s visit to China in 1972.
- This led to the Soviets seeking detente to prevent encirclement and motivated them to appeal to the USA
- Nixon also had to end vietnam war and was in pursuit of realpolitik, hoping to use detente to get the USSR and china to put pressure on north vietnam to end the war
- ‘realpolitik’; Kissinger argued that the Kennedy’s and Johnson’s administrations had focused too much on victory in one isolated area - Vietnam - at the expense of the global balance of power.
Ostpolitik:
- Ostpolitik, initiated by Willy Brandt, Chancellor of West Germany, aimed to improve East-West relations in Europe during the period of détente in the 1970s through the Final Quadripartite Protocol of 1972 and the Basic Treaty of 1972
- belief that not only west germany but the whole continent would benefit from a reduction of tensions and greater links between east and west
- pressure from europe due to political instability in both eastern and western europe
- led to the The Basic Treaty (1972): This was signed by East Germany and West Germany.
It accepted the existence of two Germanys. West Germany now recognized East
Germany and agreed to increase trade links between the two countries
- Ostpolitik was integral to the Helsinki Agreement, which represented a peak in cooperation among 33 countries.
- This agreement established inviolable frontiers in Europe, fostered collaboration in economic, scientific, and cultural fields, and promoted the protection of human rights.
Counter argument
Despite this outward cooperation, underlying tensions persisted, as suspicions between the USA and the USSR remained, and Americans viewed détente with skepticism, believing it masked Soviet expansionism. It could also be argued that Political factors were significant but secondary to economic and military pressures, as they were more about leveraging opportunities than addressing immediate existential threats.
detente causes- economic
Economic factors:
From the US perspective
- Financial strain from the Vietnam War led to a desire to reduce military spending.
- Detente offered an opportunity to cut costs through arms control agreements (e.g., SALT I). - This treaty addressed key areas, including the limitation and placement of Anti-Ballistic Missiles (ABMs), Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), and Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs), and established guidelines for the conduct of nuclear warfare and the development of weaponry
From the Soviet perspective
- economic problems and needed to improve standard living for citizens
- needed to transfer economic resources from production armaments to the production of consumer goods
- Stalled economy and the burden of supporting weak satellite states (e.g., Poland, East Germany).
- Need to redirect resources to domestic issues rather than the arms race.
Evaluation:
The overall economic burden on both superpowers was a significant factor in driving detente. For the US, the financial strain of the Vietnam War made arms control an attractive option, while the USSR’s economic stagnation and the cost of maintaining its satellite states created a similar incentive. The mutual recognition of these economic pressures underscored the pragmatic nature of detente, as both sides sought to alleviate their financial strains while maintaining strategic stability.
Counter argument: However, it could be argued that while economic pressure was significant in driving detente, this only came second to the broader geopolitical goals of the US and the USS,R including the role of the Sino-Soviet Split and emerging Ping Pong Diplomacy
detente causes- military
Military factors:
MAD:
- Focused on the prevention of Mutually Assured Destruction due to the Cold war becoming increasingly confrontational after the built up threat of the arms race, Cuban Missile crisis of 1962 and the practice of brinkmanship.
- The doctrine of MAD posited that full-scale use of nuclear weapons by two or more opposing sides would result in the total annihilation of both the attacker and defender.
- This created a stalemate, as neither side could reasonably expect to win a nuclear conflict, leading to a desire for stability.
- Detente was also made possible by the fact that now the USSR had reached nuclear parity with the USA and so could negotiate from a position of equality however they still lagged behind the US in technology. Détente opened opportunities for technological exchanges and trade agreements, which could help modernize Soviet industries.
- Détente aimed to reduce the risk of miscalculations or accidental nuclear war
- Growing anti-war sentiment and fear of nuclear war among the populace pressured governments to seek peaceful resolutions.
- Leaders faced domestic calls for reduced military tensions, influencing their approach to foreign policy.
Counter argument: Some argue that detente was superficial and failed to address underlying ideological conflicts. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 marked the end of detente, suggesting its fragility. While detente had limitations, it was a pragmatic response to the immediate economic and military realities of the time.
detente- helenski agreement
- the Helsinki Final Act of 1975, signed by 35 countries, included agreements on security, economic cooperation, and human rights.
- The security basket recognized post-war European borders, while the cooperation basket promoted closer ties in various fields. The human rights basket, although controversial, committed signatories to respect fundamental freedoms.
- total of 3 baskets, 1. security baskey based on ostpolitik, both east and west germany recognized by both sides of cold war, 2. cooperation basket, 3. human rights basket agreedment to respect human rights and individual freedoms
- Therefore, détente facilitated dialogue and cooperation on a broader range of issues, including human rights.
- However, the Soviet Union’s commitment to human rights remained questionable, leading to disillusionment in the West.
- The Soviets had believed that they could sign the Helsinki Agreement and then ignore the commitment to human rights that the agreement entailed.
- However, the Carter administration became increasingly determined to link any trade deals with the Soviets to ‘good behavior’ in the area of human rights.
- For example the USA wanted Soviet Jews to be able to emigrate in return for improved trading conditions.
detente - MAD, SALT, arms control
- detente came under pressure due to the fact that the USA felt that the arms agreements were benefitting the Soviet Union only.
- They worried that the Soviets were building strategic superiority through its ICBMs. Secondly, the USA could see the Soviet Union strengthening its influence in the Middle East – through giving weapons and aid to Arab states - and Africa.
SALT:
- SALT I, signed in 1972, included the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, limiting ABM sites, and the Interim Treaty, capping the number of Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) and Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs).
- The Basic Principles Agreement also laid down rules for nuclear conduct and promoted peaceful co-existence. Therefore, détente fostered a degree of cooperation in acknowledging nuclear parity and establishing initial limitations on strategic weapons.
- However, SALT I was criticized for not being comprehensive enough, as it did not restrict Multiple Independently Targeted Re-entry Vehicles (MIRVs).
- SALT I’s failure to restrict MIRVs was a major loophole. The U.S. expanded its MIRV-capable missiles (e.g., Minuteman III), allowing one missile to carry multiple warheads, effectively increasing its nuclear strike potential despite limits on launchers.
- The Soviets later caught up in MIRV technology (e.g., SS-18 Satan), contributing to arms race concerns in the late 1970s
- ABMs (Anti-Ballistic Missiles) were allowed at only two sites –each site containing no more than a hundred missiles.
- The Interim Treaty: This placed limits on the numbers of ICBMs (Inter-Continental
Ballistic Missiles) and SLBMs (Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles).
- interim treaty also signed alongside ABM treaty, designed to freeze the number of strategic nuclear delivery systems for 5 years while negotating for permenant treaty
- Efforts to further limit strategic arms continued with SALT II, signed in 1979 by Carter and Brezhnev. This treaty aimed to set further limits on strategic nuclear delivery vehicles and ban new types of ICBMs.
- However, SALT II faced significant domestic opposition in the US and was never ratified by the Senate, particularly after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
- confrontation escalated after Afghanistan. Carter refused to approve SALT II and stopped US athletes from participating in the 1980 Olympics. He promised to increase defense spending and issued the Carter Doctrine.
- afghanistan showed that despite stable relationship there was still underlying rivalry between the US and USSR throughout detente, did not eliminate the fundamaental comeptition and mistrust that characterized the cold war
reasons for end of detente
- Many in the US believed arms agreements favored the Soviets, who continued building ICBMs.
- The Soviet Union supported left-wing revolutionary groups in Africa, like the MPLA in Angola.
- Soviets and Cubans backed Ethiopia against Somalia in 1977, leading Americans to perceive a grand Soviet expansion scheme (though this was not the case).
- Disillusionment grew over the Soviet attitude towards the Helsinki Agreement; Soviets saw Basket 3 as meaningless since the US couldn’t enforce human rights.
- Under Jimmy Carter, the US linked economic deals to human rights improvements, such as allowing Soviet Jews to emigrate, which the USSR resented.
- The Soviets recognized that the US believed it could act freely on the world stage, evident when Israel ignored a UN ceasefire during the 1973 Yom Kippur War without US intervention.
- Concern arose in the USSR about US support for anti-Communist governments in the ‘Third World,’ like Chile.
- As the US economy recovered in the late 1970s, the initial economic benefits of détente seemed less relevant; the USSR struggled economically, reducing US incentives for détente.
- Détente collapsed after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979; the US viewed it as a threat to world peace, leading Carter to reject SALT II, halt electronic exports, and bar US athletes from the Olympics. The Carter Doctrine pledged US intervention if Soviet actions threatened Western interests in the Persian Gulf.
