AS Hitler Flashcards
hyperinflation
- hyperinflation caused by reperations impose by TOV after WWI, then failure by constituion to stabilize economy, then by invasion of ruhr
- The French and Belgian invasion of the Ruhr in response to Germany’s failure to make reparations payments further exacerbated the economic crisis. The German government encouraged passive resistance, which halted industrial production and worsened inflation.
- Led to millions of middle class thrown into poverty and Weimer government got blamed
- Attempts to stop hyperinflation by Stresseman but was still greatly unpopular
Anti Young plan:
- Felt scale and time frame was too long as payment laster 59 years, this would thus limit Germany’s progression as a nation
- Nationalists felt they should not be paying reparations, this sentiment was fueled by a desire for national pride and economic independence
- Widespread unemployment and economic despair contributed to social unrest, strikes, and protests, further destabilizing the Weimar Republic and paving the way for the rise of the Nazi Party
invasion of ruhr
- High cost of war + reperation payment + removal of income generating areas meant heavily reliance on loans and missing of installments
- Campaign of passive resistance meant workers were paid wages despite not producing output, in some cases even destroying equipment and factories
- Led to temporary popularity of the German party as it meant they were united against a common enemy
- However also led to hyperinflation for paying wages and no output
- lay the groundwork for undemrining confidence in weimer system, led to growth of support for authoritarian regime especially during great depression
great depression
great depression 1929:
- stock market on wallstreet collapsed, led germany to plunge into depression having borrowed heavily and credits being recalled
- Led to widespread spiral in hardship and decline, increased unemployment and unemployment benefits
- 50% of aged 16-30 unemployed despite having higher education
- 4 out of 10 workers unemployed
- Famer’s precise of goods fell leading to an increase in Nazi influence in the countryside
- created a vicious cycle. The initial loss of savings during hyperinflation led to reduced consumer spending, further deepening the economic crisis during the Depression.
- Economic problems led to turn toward extremist parties in hopes for solutions, Nazi party provided scapegoats: communists, jews, politicians
- In 1930 Nazi party won 107 seats while communists won 77 seats
bruning’s polices:
- served as chancellor during height of great depression, cut social programs and unemployment benefits, led to raised taxes and further straining of standard of living
- led to political unpopularity, widely criticized and led to political instability
- led to turn toward extremist policices
- failed to revive economy, unemployment and led to widespread discontent
TOV
- Germany was not allowed to participate in negotiations and only had 15 days to respond, refusing to sign meant they would go back to war
- They had believed they the treaty would no be harsh as they had been forced to join the war
- They were under a new government ‘a democracy’ which would appeal to the allies, this meant that it was a revolution from “above” rather than based in popular groundswell, germans were suspicious and lacked familiarity with democracy meant there lacked genuine support
- US president woodrow wilson wanted to give germany a chance to achieve stability and prevent revenge
- Took 13% of German territory in europe, leading to loss of 50% of iron reserves and 15% of coal reserves
- Had to pay 6,600 million in reparations
-vMilitary constrained with limit 100,000 soliders, no aircrafts, no submarines, no tanks - ‘War guilt clause’ in particular led to widespread resentment, meant humiliation, justification of paying for reparations by blaming them for starting the war
- Germans were angry at weimer constitution and deliberately plotted to undermine the new government
- Labelled those who signed the treaty as the November Criminals who had stabbed the nation “in the back”
- Led to resentment and a turn toward extremist parties, something that Hitler provided through scapegoats and vage slogans such as “break the chains of the versailes”
weimer constition and proportional representation
- Proportional representation meant the percentage of seats obtained was the percentage of votes you obtained
- Required a lot of compromise, collaboration, and commitment, traits that the new democracy and its parties had no experience in doing
- While it gave way to a lot of representation within the party as you got a voice as long as you got votes small parties may be extremist
- No party could hold the majority and therefore had to form coalitions, these commonly broke down leading to instability and the frequent changing of chancellors, political parties in weimer republic were hostile or ambivalent toward democratic government
- Led to an ineffective weimer constitution that was already backloading the unpopularity of the TOV, the inefficiency of the party meant that they were ineffective in addressing Germany’s problems
article 48
- This meant that the president could pass laws without Reichstag approval including suspending basic principles of the constiution and rule by emergency degree
- valid for late 1918 and early 1919 to defend the democratic government
- As the government increasingly relied on emergency decrees, the authority of the Reichstag diminished, leading to public disillusionment with democracy
- The repeated invocation of Article 48 allowed the President (notably Paul von Hindenburg) to bypass parliamentary approval. This concentration of power created an environment conducive to authoritarian rule.
Hitler use:
- reichstag fire 1933, hitler leveraged situation to invoke article 48 allowing for reichstag fire decree
- Directly led to Hitler’s rise as passed the Enabling Act allowing him to dismantle democracy by passing laws without parliamentary consent, solidified his dictatorial power
- Brunings policies were also passed under the article and included tax rises and cuts to unemployment benefits, further increasing resentment
propoganda
- formed cult of leadership depicting Hitler as both charasmatic superhuman and man of the people
- joseph goebbels responsible for propoganda campaigns, helped to capture attention of potential supporters
- Hitler was presented as a strong leader, appearance was changed in propaganda to have almost superhuman strength
Slogans deliberately vague such as “smash the chains of the Versailes” or “Make germany strong” - All Nazi Party members were trained in propoganda skills and messages were changed according to what was popular at the tiem
- The nazis owned 8 different newspapers aiming to sell their ideology to each particular audience
- Huge rallies were held to demonstrate the order and discipline of the Nazi Party
- Enlightenment and Propaganda under the control of Goebbels, ministry established chambers to oversee the work of the press, radio, theatre, music, the creative arts and film
- groups and individuals identified as hate symbols and ruse to rally support from different groups to unite against supposed enemies: jews, maxists, november criminals (people who signed the armistice) and traitors who signed diktat
leadership strengths
speaker:
- Hitler was a talented speaker utilizing the Munich Putsch to attack the government, thus increasing his popularity seeming like a nationalist standing up for German rights
- argued to be in tune with the needs of the nations and uncanny intuition on the sufferings of the audience and then lashing out at opponents and vilifying Jews to adapt to circumstances
- He was let off light with 5 years in prison
opportunism:
- able to recognize opportunities presented by circumstances, seen through boost in popularity during great depression or reichstag which was right before march 1933 election which allowed party to benefit by conjuring threat of revolution and eliminate communist party
Elite support:
- Hitler provided financial backing for his campaign with the aim of stopping the rise of communism, therefore gaining the support of powerful businesses who funded Hitlers messaging
- failure of the left to unite in defense of the republic and in the interests of self preservation against an ideological enemy
SA and SS
- Frieikorps were attracted to Hitlers ideas as they shared similar sese of nationalism and resentment for the TOV
- SA was created as a paramilitary force to disrupt meetings of opposing political parties and control crowds
- The organisation of the SA impressed the general public in demonstrating Hitler’s strenght in being able to control them and have their obedience
- By 1930 the SA had 400,000 members which helped bolster Nazi presence at rallies
- Used memorable symbolism such as swords and flags to reinforce that Nazis could bring a better germany
-In 1930 and 1932 the SA used violence to threaten the opposition and intimidate voters as they voted - the violence and intimidation tactics employed by the SA likely influenced voter behavior, as many individuals may have been deterred from supporting opposition parties due to fear of reprisal. This intimidation helped the Nazis gain ground in elections.
- SS formed as hitler’s personal bodyguard that was loyal directly to Hitler, played key role in protecting Nazi leadership and implementing party policies
ideology
- desire to overturn diktat, especially against those had signed TOV
- emphasis on inclusion of Germans in German states and the need for lebensraum or living space
- superiority of the aryan race especially with emphasis on anti seminitic ideology
- need for a hierarchal one party state
- rejection of communism, democracy or disunity within society
- looking towards restoring glory of past germany
- The aims of the party were deliberately kept vague to appeal to the mass eg.
Destruction of the TOV, Blamed defeat of WWI through anti-semitism, Anti communist ideals - The fascist salute and use of flags helped the Nazi Party form a clear identity
- controlled the NSDAP like a military
- Surrounded himself with people loyal to him and developed friendships with powerful personnel such as Ludendorff
munich putsch/ reorganization
- inspired by Mussolini’s march on rome, sought to capitalize on political turmoil gripping Germany following french occupation of Ruhr and hyperinflation
- Hitler believed they were ready to seize power, 20,000 supporters and the SA, believed relationship with Ludendorff meant that he could persuade army to support the nazi party against weimer government
- trial held in public and widely reported in the german press giving hitler a national platform to spread his view, attacked wimer government
- 5 year sentencing was extremely lenient as most severe penalty for treason was death
- allowed him time to form political manifesto Mein Kampf, showed hitler the need for infiltrating the system, shown the limitations of seeking power through the violent overthrow of existing order, emphasis on persuasion rather than confrontation
- by 1927 after reorganization NSDAP had 70,000 members and won 12 seats in parliament in 1928 elections
- brought hitler and followers to national prominence, provided myth that was later deployed as propaganda
- time in prison gave him space to plan political programme and to develop new political strategy
Nazi reorganization
- reorganization after ban on nazi party lifted in 1925 february, formation of his ideology including SA, SS, nazi youth and other parts of nazi reorganization
- despite well organized and 100,000 membership, nazis still had limited success gaining seats in reichstag, won 32 seats in 1924 but only 12 in 1928
- due to Stresemann’s golden age, helped improve relationships with foreign countries and revitalize the german economy
reichstag fire
- Within 24 hours of his appointment as chancellor, Hitler had called new Reichstag elections believing that a new election would increase the Nazi vote and strengthen his own position
- Nazi party used the fire as an excuse and named it a communist anti government plot to start revolution
- Hitler used the fire to attack the communists and increase his own personal power
- 4,000 communist leaders arrested
- Passed emergency decree which gave police the power to search homes and imprison anyone they arrested without trials
- Banned meetings, took over radio stations and closed newspapers
- Elections held on 5th March 1933 6 days after Reichstag fire
Methods used:
- Goering replaced police officers with SA forced with 50,000 SA members intimidating opponents, political violence led to 70 deaths
- Thousands in communist party and social democratic party arrested
- SA broke up opposition meetings
- Threatened supporters at polling stations to encourage correct voting
- july 1932 elections increased vote from 33.1 to 43.9%, gained 288 seats in reichstag but did not gain majority led to reichstag fire
- Failed in March 1933 as he did not gain ⅔ of seats
- Banned communist party with emergency powers
- Nationalist party supported him
- Won support from centre party by promising to protect the catholic church
- SA and SS kept around reichstag to intimidate members
- Enabling act was then passed which allowed Hitler to make laws without approval of Reichstag
- Reichstag only met 12 times across his time in power
communist/ socialist opposition
- failure of opposition from the left contributed towards the rise of hitler especially to change strategy until 1935 enabled the Nazis to consolidate power
- distrust between KPD and SPD reminaing even in face of brutal repression of both parties after 1933
- while groups within both tried to undermine the regime they failed
- as early as january 1933 the KPD and SPD were targets of physcial violence from SA street fighters
- the reichstag fire led to banning of KPD and threats and intimidation of SPD deputies
- the arrest of KPD leader Ernest thalmann and other leader party cadres in march meant that it rendered the party’s organizational structure on a national level ineffective
- leaflets issuing of underground newspaper, raising of red banners and continued circulation of offical party newspaper was extent of activities undertaken
- lack of serious consideration toward armed insurrection
- KPD still believed that hitler’s regime was the product of capitalism and would collapse
- SPD deputies able to attend the reichstag meeting during the debate on the enabling bill were the only ones to vote against the passage
- by june of 1933 the party of banned
- SPD undertook similar actions as the KPD, distributing news sheets, posting anti nazi leaflets while specific groups carried out anti nazi propoganda, the numbers involved in the activities were small and were said to be no more than irritants
- despite formation of comintern the KPD centralized structure was in tatters, therefor opposition did not materialize
- by august 1939 was in a dilema as Moscow and berlin had signed friendship treaty leading to confusion and disillusionment
- communist opposition was small in numbers and impact, effectiveness hindered by gestapos ability to identify and elimate threat
- round up by gestapo by communists involved in industrial disruption illustrated extent of party’s capabilities of organizing effective opposition
- overall both socialist and communists failed to provide an alternative to the nazis
role of the church/ religious opposition
- nazi ideology was fundamentally opposing to the beliefs of christianity, however hitler attempted to win over support of the protestant and catholic churches by stating that they would be accommodated within the nazi state
- oncordat that was signed between the Papacy and the regime and which was an attempt to safeguard the position of the Church under the Nazis. In this agreement the Nazis guaranteed the Catholic Church religious freedom and full control over its own education and its property and legal rights. The papacy in return said that they would not interfere in politics and would give diplomatic recognition to the nazi governmnet
- nazi governmnet did not keep to this agreement
- catholic church later criticized the regime’s violations of rights and its treament of jews
- A notable opposition group within German Protestantism, the Confessing Church, emerged in response to Nazi interference. It sought to uphold Christian teachings against the regime’s ideology, however opposition largely based on interference in church affairs rather than outright condemnation of the politica princples of national socialism
- While some church leaders opposed the Nazis, many others were either complicit or remained silent. Religious minorities, such as Jehovah’s Witnesses, faced severe persecution for refusing to swear loyalty to the regime or serve in the military
- jehovah witnesses refused to give Nazi salute or join Nazi organizations, however limited numbers made impact limited
- estimated 10,000 imprisoned and 250 executed for refusal to serve in military
- organized religious opposition was often limited in its effectiveness, facing repression from the Nazi state. Many church leaders prioritized maintaining their institutions over actively resisting the regime.
white rose
- non violent, intellectual resistance group which conducted anonymous leaflet and graffiti campaigns, totaling around 15,000 copies
-German student resistance group during World War II, known for its non-violent opposition to the Nazi regime - founded in 1942 by students at university of munich
- best known for distributing pamphlets that criticized nazi regime, called for opposition to Hitler, urged Germans to resist the war, emphasis on appealing to conscience of German people
- the group had a small membership and could only reach a limited audience with their pamphlets, message could not gain widespread traction among general population
- gestapo surveillance meant it was difficult to operate without detection
- effectively dismantled after the arrest of key members in early 1943.
- Many Germans were either fearful of reprisals or indifferent to the group’s messages, reducing the likelihood of a broader movement against the Nazis.
kreisau circle
- Established around 1940 by a group of intellectuals, politicians, and military officers who opposed the Nazi regime.
- The group aimed to discuss and plan for a post-Nazi Germany, focusing on democratic governance, social justice, and the restoration of civil rights.
- influenced by Christian ethics, humanism, and ideas of social and political reform. They sought to create a new moral and ethical framework for Germany after the war.
- mix of conservative aristocrats, liberal intellectuals, and even some left-leaning individuals. This diversity contributed to a range of ideas about governance and societal structure post-Nazism.
- primarily a think tank, the Kreisau Circle also engaged in various forms of resistance, including disseminating anti-Nazi literature and discussing potential coup plans.
- group operated more as a discussion forum than a cohesive resistance organization. This lack of structured leadership and clear action plans hindered their effectiveness.
- While the members were influential intellectuals, they did not have significant connections within the military or political structures that could facilitate a successful coup against the Nazis.
- conducted operation Valkyrie, conspirators aimed to kill Hitler and use the chaos to seize control of the government. They believed that removing Hitler would allow for a negotiated peace with the Allies and a restoration of Germany’s honor
- Stauffenberg carried a bomb in a briefcase to a meeting at the Wolf’s Lair, Hitler’s military headquarters in East Prussia. He placed the briefcase near Hitler and left the room
- The bomb detonated, killing several people and injuring others, but Hitler survived. He was shielded by a heavy wooden table, which absorbed much of the blast.
- Following the failed assassination, the conspirators attempted to execute their plan by declaring a state of emergency and arresting Nazi leaders. However, the lack of coordination and the rapid response by loyalist forces thwarted these efforts.
- In the days following the attempt, the Gestapo arrested thousands of suspected conspirators. Many were executed, including Stauffenberg and other key figures involved in the plot.
- The group was ultimately suppressed by the Gestapo, with many members arrested and executed after the failed July 20, 1944, assassination attempt on Hitler.
- The general population’s fear of Nazi reprisals and the effectiveness of Nazi propaganda meant that there was limited public support for resistance efforts, including those of the Kreisau Circle.
anschluss
- hitler wanted to pursue goal of lebensraum and complete revision of TOV
- Nazi Party in Austria gained popularity, leading to increasing pressure for unification with Germany.
- march 1928 german troops entered austria and annexation accomplishment without significant resistance
- plebiscite was held on April 10, 1938, where an overwhelming majority (over 99%) voted in favor of Anschluss, although the vote was heavily manipulated and conducted under duress
- Increased Germany’s power and access to valuable natural resources, such as coal, iron ore, and other raw materials, present in Austria.
- Strengthened Hitler’s expansionist agenda and emboldened his ambitions for further territorial acquisitions.
- Altered the balance of power in Europe, as Germany’s military capabilities and industrial capacity were enhanced.
- Worsened relationships between Germany and Czechoslovakia, as Austria’s annexation weakened Czechoslovakia’s strategic position and increased its vulnerability to German aggression.
- Created tension and heightened concerns among European nations about the aggressive territorial ambitions of Nazi Germany.
- Eroded the credibility of the policy of appeasement, which aimed to avoid conflict by accommodating Germany’s territorial demands.
- Prompted a reassessment of European policies towards Nazi Germany, leading to a realization that a more assertive stance was necessary to address German expansionism.
nazi soviet pact & poland
- Nazi soviet pact:
- USSR and germany pledged to remain neutral in event of either nation being attacked by a third party
- divided northern and europe into german and soviet spheres of influence
1. The pact gave Germany Soviet neutrality in case of a German-polish war/ prevent the Soviets from formign an alliance with Britain and France
2. Prevented the soviet union from concluding negotiations with Britain and France which may result in a war on both fronts for Germany
3. Hitler could gain valuable raw materials from the Soviet Union - Poland was a relatively new country formed in 1919, with over 800,000 Germans living there leading to resentment from Hitler
- West Prussia was given to Poland in the Treaty of Versailles, leading to resentment from Germans
Allowed access to the sea - Split East Prussia from the rest of Germany
Became a ‘free city’ run by LON, a seaport used by Poland and Germany - Munich conference led to Hitler’s demand for access through the ‘Polish corridor’ through the construction of roads and railways which split the German Territory and demand for the restoration of Danzig
- In exchange, it offered to renew the 1934 nonaggression pact
- The rejection of this led to Hitler’s plan for invasion of Poland in April 1939
- Divided northern and Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence, assigned Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Finland to the Soviet sphere of influence
- Initially kept Soviet Union and Germany out of war with each other
- Soviet Union to keep trading with Germany, increasing exports and decreasing the negative effects of the English blockade
- Pact helped facilitate the invasion of Poland which had long-lasting effects with territorial changes (germany could attack poland without fear of soviet interference)
- started World War 2 where Great Britain and France declared war on Germany
- June 22, 1941 the pact terminated due to Germany attacking Soviet Union without notice
Czechoslovakia
- Hitler aimed to establish a new racial order dominated by Germans as the master race.
- Czechoslovakia was a resource-rich country with a large military.
- Germany urgently needed to seize the gold of the Czechoslovak central bank to continue its Four-Year Plan and fund military expansion.
- The Munich Pact was signed in September 1938, leading to the military occupation of Czechoslovakia through the annexation of the Sudetenland.
- key players involved in the Munich Conference (Germany, Britain, France, and Italy) but Czechoslovakia absent in negotiations.
- War did not erupt over the Sudeten crisis, which increased Hitler’s popularity in Germany as conflict was avoided.
- led to Czechoslovakia loss of territory and sovereignty
- This event marked a turning point in European relations with Germany, revealing that appeasement was ineffective and only emboldened Hitler.
- However, Europe was unable to take action, as Japan posed a more immediate threat to Britain’s colonies, leading Neville Chamberlain to announce a guarantee for Poland’s security.
Remilitarization of the Rhineland
- rhineland region closely located to france, key area in protecting the ruhr industrial region from future invasion, also rich in resources
0 hitler also desired German equality meaning he wanted to rebuild german army and remiliarized especially to expand infleunce into western europe later on - failure of stresa front by allies and the reluctance to go to war gave hitler reassurance to invade the region, assured that allied would not intervene
- march 1936 germany marched 20,000 troops into the rhineland violating the terms of the TOV and the Locarno pact
- Hitler emphasised the risks associated with remilitarizing the Rhineland, stating that if the army was forced to withdraw after entering the region, he would appear incredibly foolish. Consequently, Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to retreat immediately in case France reacted and deployed their military.
- although condemned hitler’s actions, france was not in position to react due to political and financial crises while other allies and lON preoccupied by Abyssinian crisis
- therefore some histroains argue that hitlers actions were planned and not considered a gamble
- britain interpreted this as Hiter bolstering military in region and not expanding into others
- emboldened Hitler and signaled to other nations that Germany was willing to defy international agreements without fear of repercussions.
night of the long knives
- SA played major role in helping nazis rise to power, however by 1934 hitler wanted tor educe power of SA
- SA becoming too powerful, by 1934 had over 2 million members, Rohm became posibble rival to Hitler’s leadership
- rohm was also homosexual, believed it was corrupting the hitler youth
- rohm wanted to take measures against big businesses and adopt socialist policies, hitler wanted support of big businesses for funding
- head of SS Himmler resented SA influence and wanted to reduce their importance
- SA memebrs used violence and intimidation and were poorly organized, reflected badly on hitler resulting in loss of support from conservatives
- SA wanted to take place of the army despite Hitler’s plans to rearms Germany and increase the size of its army, SA began stopping army convoys and confiscating weapons
- night of long knives 30th june 1934, members of SS arrested around 200 SA officers and many executed, around 90 died
- SA leaders and political enemies such as Von Kahr and Schleicher and possible rival leaders Gregor Strasser were targeted
- claimed to be defending Germany against a plot that was going to be led by Rohm, showed courage to protect Germany even from past friends
- SA power significantly reduced, SS became independent of SA under Hitler personal command and army has to swear personal oath to Hitler
silent vs active opposition
- most germans remained loyal to regime only about 1% engaged in active oppositions and most german accommodated themselves to domestic and foreign policies
- fear of punishment was partly responsible for attitude of neutrality within resisters
- silent opposition included refusing to offer nazi salute, telling jokes about hitler and regime
active opposition including sabotage in workplace, circulation of anti Nazi propaganda and plots of assassination, most notably 1944 bomb plot - most motives of opponents of regime ranged from desire to morally and ethically resist nazi policy to desire to salvage what was possible when defeat was certain
military opposition/ beck-goerdeler group
- after night of long knives submitted to the Hitler state of oath of personal loyalty, bought by visions of successful nazi foreign policy, removal of military restrictions of TOV
- by the later 1930s elements of army leadership questioned, fear that hitler’s policies could spark a major war that would destroy germany
- individual army leaders who questioned hitler’s foreign policy or his interference in the military were forced to resign
- field marshals blomberg and fritsch resigned meant that hitler assumed supreme command of armed forces
- general ludwig beck plotted coup against regime, made contact with neville chamberlain however policy of appeasement led to disappointment
- created beck-goerdeler group which begun as organization for network of military and conservative nationalist supporters with intnetion of ending Hitler state
- however mobilizing support was difficult especially during war, military success increased support for regime while losses on the eastern front meant the group was able to attract more support in germany
- the group’s plans also reflected a monarchial germany which reflected conservative beliefs of politicians and officers involved
- also in association of the kreisau circle
gestapo
- successful for repressing and preventing dissent, had 30,000 officers at its peak
- Goring established police state of gestapo where prussian political police service was transformed to gestapo
- continuity in terms of weimer police continuing service for gestapo after 1933
- outwardly formidable structure of repression was instrument used to maintain order within Germany
- german citizens worked in collaboration with secret police by informing them on enemies of the state, relied on culture of denunciation
- had power to search anyone’s home
- huge number of informers reported to gestapo for example every block of flats had block leader who would report suspicious behavior or criticism of government, these people the handed over to SS for torture
- not all germans believed they were being oppressed even if they did they felt benefits were more important than the loss of personal freedom
- most historians agree that at least half of all gestapo investigations came about because of information provided by neighbors, friends or family members
- fostered atmosphere of fear to dissuade resistance, but was successful in stifling opposition throughout period of nazi rule
- special courts also established across germany which had no juries and judges were expected to support nazi policies, had no right of appeal against a sentence led to many political opponents being sentenced to death
enabling act
- reichstag fire created climate of fear, climaed to be part of communist plot
- required 2/3 majority to pass, used emergency powers to ban the communist party members, nationalist party agreed to support him, won support from centre party by promising to protect catholic church
- allowed him to gain majority, but still placed SA and SS around reichstag to initimidate members to persuade social democratic party to vote for new law
- removed checks on power by permitting passing decrees without parliamentary consent, made him legal dictator
- initially for 4 years but later extended
- crucial for elimanting opposition, banned political parties, suppressed trade unions and coordination of state institutions
- used act to enforce censorship, repression and nazi ideology
- Opposition was minimal due to fear of the SA/SS and propaganda portraying Hitler as Germany’s savior
- Its long-term impact was the total erosion of constitutional rights, paving the way for the Holocaust and aggressive war policies
- Unlike Article 48 the Enabling Act permanently transferred legislative power to Hitler, making it the legal foundation of Nazi dictatorship.
successful (ish) forms of opposition
- only effective opposition came from the upper classes who dominated the civil service, in particular from the highest ranks of the army
- the conservative elites initially supported nazism because of attacks on socialist and communists, restoration of authoritarian rule and overturning of TOV
- army won over to the regime following night of the long knives
- However, from 1937 they became concerned with Hitler’s foreign policy aims which they feared might result in Germany having to fight a war on two fronts
- Hitler’s purge of conservative army leaders in 1938 and his increasingly personal control over the army, intensified concerns and some army leaders considered the possibility of a coup 1938 – 1939.
- However, any attempts at resistance were deflected by Hitler’s success in foreign policy 1938 – 39, and then, once war started, by the need to support the government in time of war.
treatment of jews
- Once in power, Hitler enacted policies of persecution and legal discrimination against Jews starting in 1933, amid violence.
- Goebbels’ propaganda portrayed Jews as non-Germans linked to anti-German forces, advocating for their elimination.
- An initial boycott of Jewish shops was quickly halted due to public disapproval.
- The ‘Law of the Restitution of the Professional Civil Service’ legalized discrimination, severely impacting middle-class Jews and increasing emigration.
- Violence against Jews persisted, including beatings, torture, and killings by the SA; book burnings occurred in May 1933.
- Nazi teachers enforced the segregation of Jewish children from non-Jewish pupils.
- The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 reduced Jews to second-class citizenship, stripping them of civil and political rights.
- The Law for the Protection of German Blood forbade Jews from marrying Aryans and restricted employment of women under 45 in Jewish households.
- Germans were urged to report anyone involved in ‘race defilement’ or associating with Jews.
- Jews faced systematic exclusion from professions, education, and public life after the Nuremberg Laws.
- From 1938, anti-Semitic policies escalated alongside Hitler’s territorial expansion.
- New IDs marked with ‘J’ for Jude; Jewish women adopted the name Sarah and men Israel.
- By late 1938, Jewish children were barred from schools, and Jews were banned from public baths, theatres, and parks with restricted seating.
- In November 1938, the Reichskristallnacht saw radicals attack 7,000 businesses and destroy 267 synagogues in retaliation for a shooting.
- Officially, ninety-one Jews were killed, but many more died from arrests or suicides; Jews had to pay for property damages and lose insurance claims.
- Many Germans were appalled by the violence but did little to oppose ongoing discrimination.
- While some Jews sought to emigrate, the regime made it difficult due to financial burdens and restrictions from other nations.
- By 1939, emigration became nearly impossible, and persecution intensified, with the war facilitating brutalization and genocidal policies.
Women policies
ideology：
- women role and value in the nazi state should only be domestic
- plans for new germany did not include advancement of women, did not accept them as equals to men
- defined female emancipation as a jewish idea that was designed to weaken society
- women were valued in the nazi movement for role in procreation as hitler believed a larger, racially pure population would enhance germany’s military strength
- nation socialist womanhood (NSF) was all seperate women groups being brought into one body, purpose of keeping nazi women under the control of the exclusively male party
- birth rate dropping in germany, wanted women to embrace motherhood as an ideal
- motherhood campaign introduced toe ncourage women to give up work and return home to become mothers
- fewer women allocated university places, law and higher education provided fewer positions for women, civil service no longer accepted women entrants
- Birth control clinics were obliged to close and abortion was made illegal.
- Smoking was held to be unsuitable.
In 1935, the Lebensborn (Spring of Life) project encouraged unmarried women with good racial credentials to become pregnant, with selected SS men as the fathers, Also facilitated the adoption of orphans and kidnapping foreign children deemed racially pure - Prolific mothers were awarded medals with the inscription ‘The child ennobles the mother’. These were given annually on 12th August, the birthday of Hitler’s mother.
- The recipients had to be ‘of German blood and hereditary healthy’.
- Split into three categories: Bronze for those who had four or five children, Sliver for those who had six or seven children, and Gold for those who had eight or more children.
- Women were asked to follow the ‘three Ks’ - Kinder Kuche, Kirche - ‘children, kitchen, church’.
law for the reduction of unemployment june 1933:
- women encouraged to leave work on marriage with the support of generous loans
- aimed to increase germany’s falling birth rate by giving loans to help couples marry provided they left their jobs
- couples were allowed to keep 1/4 of loan for each child born
- by 1934 all married women forced out of careers in medicine, legal professions and civil service, declared ineligible for jury service for not being able to think logically
women policies successes and failures
Successes
- The Nazi government implemented policies to encourage marriage and childbirth among Aryan women. For example, the Law for the Encouragement of Marriage provided newly-wed couples with a loan and financial incentives for having children.
- The Nazi regime promoted the ideal of the traditional German woman, emphasizing motherhood and homemaking. Girls were taught these values in school and through compulsory membership in the Nazi League of German Girls (BDM).
- Women’s activism in the Nazi movement was valued, and they were praised as loyal and fanatical fellow-combatants
- Cate Haste suggests that Hitler was popular among German women, as his promise to restore order and end unemployment appealed to those who longed for stability and certainty
failures:
- Despite the emphasis on traditional gender roles, the need for labor during rearmament and total war compelled the Nazis to prod women into the workforce, deviating from the domestic ideal.
- Hitler’s domestic policies collapsed with his death, and the Nazi ideology did not leave as much of a lasting impact on Germany as he had hoped.
minority policies
Sterilization and Euthanasia Campaigns
- Set up numerous sterilization and euthanasia campaigns aimed at killing minority populations, such as Jews and Romani people, to promote a “pure” Aryan race.
- The T4 Program, initiated in 1939, systematically murdered those deemed “unfit,” including the mentally ill and disabled, leading to the deaths of approximately 200,000 individuals.
Laws and Legal Discrimination
- In September 1933, the “Law Against Habitual and Dangerous Criminals” classified beggars as “orderly” or “disorderly,” leading to their registration and compulsory work permits for accommodation; many homeless individuals were sent to detention camps, with around 10,000 arrested, few of whom survived.
- The Nuremberg Laws established the Reich Citizenship Law, allowing only racially pure Germans to be citizens, and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor, banning interracial marriage and mixing.
- A person was considered Jewish if they had three or more Jewish grandparents, while individuals of mixed heritage were labeled “Mischlinge,” with tests used to determine Jewish identity.
- The laws institutionalized racial discrimination, laying the groundwork for further persecution and violence against Jews and other minorities.
Persecution of Specific Groups
- Homosexuals were persecuted by the “Central Office for the Combat of Homosexuality and Abortion,” with Paragraph 175 of the Reich Criminal Code criminalizing “indecent activities” between males; by 1939, the Gestapo identified 100,000 individuals as “criminals,” with one-third investigated and one-quarter arrested.
- Homosexuals were sent to concentration camps, where they were marked with a pink triangle, designating them as the lowest level in the prison hierarchy; many were subjected to brutal treatment and medical experiments.
- Jehovah’s Witnesses were targeted for their refusal to serve in the military and join National Socialist organizations; the Gestapo accused them of political motives, leading to their ban in 1933 and the arrest of about 2,000, with 1,200 dying in concentration camps; they were identified by violet triangles.
- The Nazi regime actively monitored and photographed Romani communities, with approximately 50,000 Romani people in Germany in 1933; by 1945, only about 5,000 remained; many were deported to concentration camps where they faced extermination.
- Many Romani individuals were subjected to medical experiments by Nazi doctors and were included in the Nuremberg Laws of September 1935, which categorized them as racially inferior.
The Holocaust
- The Holocaust represented state-sanctioned persecution and the murder of six million Jews, marked by severe anti-Semitic propaganda, boycotts of Jewish-owned businesses, and public humiliation.
- Jews faced physical displacement through deportation and ghettoization, along with the theft of property and valuables; by 1941, over 1.5 million Jews had been deported to ghettos.
- Many Jews were forced into labor for Nazi organizations, culminating in the implementation of the “Final Solution,” which aimed at the total extermination of Jews.
- The Final Solution targeted Jews, Romani people, disabled individuals, and political dissidents, involving mass shootings of Jewish men of military age and entire communities across 1,500 locations.
- Killing centers used poisonous gas in sealed chambers, with Nazis transporting Jews from across Europe to these sites for extermination; major extermination camps included Auschwitz, Treblinka, and Sobibor, where millions were murdered.
- The Holocaust stands as one of the darkest chapters in human history, highlighting the consequences of unchecked hatred and systemic discrimination.
minority policies success and failures
successes:
- The regime effectively suppressed dissent and opposition through mechanisms like the Gestapo, which enforced compliance and monitored minority groups, creating an environment of fear that stifled resistance.
- The T4 Program and other sterilization campaigns resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of individuals deemed “unfit,” demonstrating the regime’s ruthless efficiency in executing its policies.
- The regime’s use of propaganda successfully dehumanized minorities, particularly Jews, fostering public support or indifference toward their persecution.
Failures:
- Despite the regime’s efforts, there were instances of resistance from individuals and groups, such as the Confessing Church and the White Rose movement, which challenged Nazi ideology and policies
- The systematic extermination of Jews and other minorities faced logistical difficulties, including resource shortages and the challenges of transporting large numbers of people to extermination camps.
- The Nazi regime underestimated the potential for international condemnation and resistance, particularly as news of the Holocaust began to emerge during the war
- Disagreements among Nazi leaders regarding the implementation of policies, especially in the later stages of the war, led to inefficiencies and disruptions in the execution of their genocidal plans
- The eventual documentation of the atrocities committed, along with survivor testimonies, highlighted the moral failures of the Nazi regime, leading to ongoing discussions about accountability and remembrance after the war.
social/ education policies
aims:
- indoctrinate German youth with Nazi ideology and shape their minds to ensure loyalty to the Nazi Party
- Prepare the younger generation to serve the goals of the Nazi regime and support militarism
- Create a generation of obedient, fanatical followers who would uphold Nazi principles and perpetuate the regime
- wanted to promote aryan supremacy and eliminate perceived racial threats to the german population
- Heinrich Himmler shaped education and youth policies, Baldur von Schirach, head of nazi youth responsible for implementing the policies
Hitler youth：
- The Hitler Youth (Hitlerjugend) was established in 1926 as the official youth organization of the Nazi Party.
- It aimed to indoctrinate German youth with Nazi ideology, militarism, and loyalty to Hitler.
Membership became mandatory in 1939, and by the early 1940s, it had millions of members.
- Activities included ideological training, physical education, paramilitary drills, and participation in Nazi rallies and events.
- The Hitler Youth served as a powerful tool for socializing young Germans into becoming loyal supporters of the Nazi regime.
- experienced significant growth and became compulsory by 1939
- physical education promoted physical fitness, discipline and a militaristic mindset for future military service
- diminished religious studies by replacing religion with nazi ideology and pseudo religious devotion to hitler and the nazi party
- german language and literature used to celebrate german history and superiority and reinforced nazi propaganda
- history emphasized german nationalism and glorified german achievements
- biology incorporated racial theories promoting nazi ideas of racial superiority and eugenics, taught about aryan master race and need to preserve racial purity
social policy success and failures
successes:
- The education system effectively instilled Nazi ideology in students, ensuring that many young people internalized values of nationalism, militarism, and racial superiority.
- Membership in organizations like the Hitler Youth surged, with millions of youths participating in programs designed to promote loyalty to the regime.
- The regime successfully overhauled school curricula to reflect Nazi principles, emphasizing subjects that supported their worldview, such as biology focused on racial theories.
- Emphasis on physical education contributed to a generation of physically fit youth prepared for military service, aligning with the regime’s militaristic goals.
- The education system promoted a sense of cultural unity and national pride, reinforcing the idea of a singular German identity based on Aryan ideals.
failures:
- Not all students and teachers fully embraced Nazi ideology; some resisted indoctrination, and there were instances of noncompliance within schools.
- The focus on ideology over critical thinking and academic rigor led to a decline in educational quality. Many subjects were taught with a heavy bias, limiting students’ intellectual development.
- Jewish students and those from other marginalized groups were systematically excluded from schools, which led to a loss of potential talent and diversity in education.
- Some teachers opposed the regime’s policies, leading to tensions within the education system. Many educators were forced to conform or face repercussions.
- While many youth were indoctrinated, the long-term impact of this education was mixed, as some individuals later rejected Nazi ideology, especially after the war.
cultural policies
- Both elite art, such classical music, paintings, sculpture, theatre, and popular arts such as film and radio were used to reinforce German’s shared statehood and race
- Hitler considered himself to be very knowledgeable with regards to art and effectively decided that there were two forms of art – un-German degenerate art and classical realist art that represented all that was good about Nazi Germany.
- ‘Blood and soil’: peasants were cast as the representative of the ‘pure’ Aryan blood of Germany, struggles with the soil and weather were glorified
- Anti-feminism: emphasis on pre-industrial images of woman
- Anti-semitism: degradation of Germany’s Jewish communities
- 1933: Goebbels was made minister of propaganda and popular enlightenment
Imposed rigorous censorship on all art forms - only approved art that conveyed a suitable propaganda message - May 1933: ‘Burning of the Books’ destroyed works associated with Jews, Bolsheviks, and black communities
- Many artists went into exile, had their works banned or removed
- Volksempfänger (people’s receiver): found in over 70% of German homes by 1939, radio with limited range, preventing individuals from listening to foreign broadcasts. Allowed daily exposure to Nazi news
- September 1933: new Reich Culture Chamber established - Reich Film, Music, Theatre, Press, Literature, Fine Arts, Radio - controlled and regulated all aspects of German culture
- Believed modern art that had flourished during Weimar Period was degenerate
July 1937 two contrasting art exhibitions were launched entitled ‘Degenerate Art’ and ‘Great German Art’ - Nazi propaganda portrayed Hitler as all-powerful and all-knowing
- Depicted as a father figure, friend, and leader
Anything that showed a human ‘failing’ such as wearing glasses were carefully erased - ‘Heil Hitler’ became the official form of greeting
cultural policies success and failures
- despite the destruction and censorship - Germany emerged with a new wave of art
- Fuhrer Cult - played on pre-existing fears and prejudices of ordinary Germans, allowed for cumulative radicalism (policies and actions gradually become more extreme)
failures:
- In private, people might read banned literature, listen to foreign news broadcasts
Germany secretly protected Jews and other Nazi victims
- Refused to join Nazi organisations or campaigns
- Particularly the young listened to American jazz music
- Many opposition groups existed:
E.g White Rose Group: formed by students in Munich University, revealed the truth of Nazi treatment against Jews and Savs, painted anti-Nazi slogans on buildings - members were caught and executed
- Such activities proved that not all young people were indoctrinated by the regime
economic polices
Schacht’s economic policy (New Plan)
- Schacht was president of the reichsbank and minister of economics
- mainly relied on deficit financing to stimulate public investment growth. This was able to be done through many factors:
- Banking and controlling capital - Set the interest lower and rescheduled large-scale debts - increase investment in Germany
- Assistance for farming and small businesses (including: maintaining tariffs, subsidies, grants) and the Reich Entailed Farm Law to reduce debts
- State investment for public works - Included:
1. Expanded upon the Law to Reduce - Unemployment (started by von Papen in 1932)
2. Reich Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst) expanded to employ 19-25 year olds in increase labour force
3. Work creation schemes in reforestation, land reclamation, motorisation, the building of improved roads (autobahns) and construction – especially the expansion of the housing sector and public buildings. All of this to stimulate economic growth and circulation
- Through these policies, by 1936, the economy had well recovered, tripling public investment and government expenditure increased to 70%. By this time, Germany aimed to increase their armament expenditure, increasing from 5 billion in 1935 to 10 billion in 1936. Unemployment decreased from 5.6 million in 1932 to 1.6 million in 1936.
- Abroad, foreign countries “admired” Germany’s ability to recover, despite ideological differences. However, one could argue that the successes of Nazi Germany were aided by the economy as a whole, due to the global economic situation getting better. However, it is undoubtedly Schlacht’s policies which aided the situation significantly.
schacht revised policies:
- Bilateral trade treaties: Schacht exerted increasing influence in the Balkans by opening up Germany to foreign markets in Yugoslavia and Romania using barter agreements, avoiding formal currency exchange
- Mefo bills: Schacht designed a new government bill to disguise government spending whilst funding the rearmament using the money spent by investors on Mefo bills. They were issued by the government, similar to government bonds and citizens would pay the government to own these bonds, at a 4% interest rate if the bills were kept for 5 years.
- The Reichsmark currency: Germany agreed to purchase raw materials from the countries she traded with on the condition that other countries would use the Reichsmark. This is because the Reichsmark had 237 different values depending on the country so a more seamless currency exchange was needed
4 year plan:
- Schacht’s policies on the surface provided temporary economic stability and temporarily solved the balance of payments problem through clever financial policy. However, he knew this could not continue therefore, he advised the Nazis that they should cut down on spending, which they declined. Now, Germany was facing a dilemma: “Guns vs Butter”
Aims:
- Regulate imports and exports to prioritise machinery and rearmament
- Increase the production of raw materials
- Develop substitute products to increase supply for the rearmament
war economy
- German success of the Blitzkrieg (lighting war) strategy gave Hitler’s regime popular support domestically and appeared as though there was little economic strain. Despite the fact that the economic situation + Nazi intention did not align with the success, this permitted Hitler to start a more rigorous program over the first 3 years.
- Vast programs were outlined to expand German arms, such as submarines and aircrafts. Germany was tripling its’ spending on arms at this time, In order to: Prevent the failures of Germany in WW1, Strengthen Germany, Liebensraum, Expand into European terrritory
- Germany was increasingly spending more of its’ GNP (gross national product) on military expenditure, increasing from 17% in 1938 to 47% in 1941
- By 1941, around 55% of the working population was involved with the war effort
- Different agencies operated to manage the economy; the Ministry of Economics, Armaments, Finance and Labour worked together under the central Nazi government.
- By the end of 1941, Germany was at total war with the allies after the “Rationalisation Decree” of December 1941 however, the amount of arms was inferior to Britains. This led to the Nazi desire for a more war-concentrated economy.
Speers plans:
- Speer’s behind-the scenes economic policy that had a greater significance on the German economy’s shift to total war.
- improved production through Female participation and involvement in producing arms and as factory workers which opposed the Hitler’s ideology, Making use of concentration camp prisoners as slaves, Prevented skilled labourers from participating in conscription
- Ammunition production increased by almost 100%, Tank production rose by 25%. Total arms production increased by 60%, From 1942-44, there was a three-fold increase in armament production
economic policies success and failures
success:
4 year plan
- The economy was even tighter controlled by the Nazis as a result (positive for the Nazi party)
- Raw material production increased greatly in steel and hard coal, meaning Germany was less reliant on foreign supply in those areas
failures:
4 year plan:
- Led to Schacht’s resignation as his expertise was disregarded by Nazi officials + conflict of interests with Goering - a loss for the party
Germany failed to reach many of their objectives, particularly for oil, rubber and explosives, all key raw materials needed for war
- Germany needed funding for the plan so they ended up relying on foreign countries to reach their objectives (Czechoslovakia’s reserves)
Total war:
- German arms did not significantly increase, with 8000 aircrafts in 1939 to around 10,000 in 1941, contrasting Britain which possessed over 20,000 aircrafts. German tanks totaled 3,200, which matched the USSR. Germany was statistically unprepared to face Britain, the USSR, the US and other western allied countries.
- German coordination and planning was inefficient. Short term and long term plans of the Nazis were unclear to those even within the party, leading many to deviate from Hitler’s vision
- The sudden beginning of WW2 meant that plans scheduled for 1941-2 were to be rushed/ unfinished: Germany was left largely unprepared in the long term
- Gualatiers (regional leaders) put their own interests first over the party’s: lack of coordinated effort towards a common goal
- Groups responsible for arnaments: Office of the Four year plan, the SS, Wehrmacht (German army), Luftwaffe (airforce) and Navy. All had conflicting interests and different opinions. This decreased efficiency.
Considerable amounts of financial corruption was reported around this time with the Gauleiters.
- Despite being largely a success statistically, Germany was incapable of achieving a total war economy to its’ fullest and maximizing their resources. By 1945, they failed to meet the rising demands of the war and combat the strength of the allied powers and therefore, their economic strategy ultimately failed.
