china and korea Flashcards

Question

long march- propaganda

Answer 1

- Almost 90,000 communists broke through the encirclement at Jiangxi in late 1934 and marched 9,600 km across the most inhospitable areas and terrain - Fought dozens of battles - Crossed 24 rivers - Crossed 18 mountain ranges - Covered 24 miles a day - 6000 miles in total - 8000 reached destination out of 100,000 - became myth within CCP legend, propoganda tool that showed the bravery and resilience of the red army - helped spread communist ideology across china and recruit to bolster popularity - demonstrated the strategic leadership of the CCP, as it successfully navigated treacherous terrain and enemy forces - formed strong leadership structure by maintaining unity among diverse groups within party - recruitment of peasants when spreading communism throughout countryside, bolstered membership - long term allowed communism to spread influence and for CCP to gain popularity through respectful conduct in treatment of peasants - Guaranteed immediate survival of the CCP party by preventing extermination - Mao was hailed as hero and was able to reestablish himself as the unchallenged leader of CCP counterargument - Spence: however resulted in 90% loss of red army membership through casualties however the Long March at least allowed the remaining 10% to establish another Soviet base in Yan’an where Mao would transfer his experience in Jiangxi to cultivate a successful base in northwestern China.

Answer 2

- Orthodox communists led the flight out of Jiangxi in October 1934 and had no clear plan. They incurred heavy losses to GMD who were in pursuit. - By January 1935 the CCP had lost 60% of their forces - led to zunyi conference to assess the situation where Mao emerged as leader - failure of Braun due to defeat at Xiang river meant that leadership of march was handed to Mao and Zhe De - Under their new leadership, the march took off in a new direction, often changing routes & splitting forces - deploy guerrilla warfare tactics and avoid positional conventional warfare. - Mao’s policies were supported by most of the military commanders at the Zunyi conference. Peng Dehuai and Zhu De, Zhou Enlai, Deng xiaoping - these personnel would form the CCP leadership - guerilla tactics also accepted during conference - this also meant that Mao had become the de facto leader of the CCP. - the survivors of the Long March gained invaluable experience in fighting the GMD and deploying guerrilla tactics historiography: - Hsu: labels the zunyi conference as a "landmark" in Mao's rise to the pinnacle of power

Answer 3

The yenan period saw the formulation of key concepts that were central to maoism - Managed to develop and formalise his revolutionary ideas, however still had to face opposition within the CCP and from the comintern - However Mao did not completely adhere to Marxist theory, he managed to create his own interpretations of the ideology to suit his purposes for China - marxist revolution: progress came through class struggle in which the landowners and bourgeoisie had to be overthrown lead to the dictation by the masses so that there was collective ownership in the means of production - importance of peasants: peasant masses could overthrow capitalism and create socialist society - two step revolution: collectivization and nationalization of property in second step - mass mobilization: campaigns should be based on the people and not imposed from above, therefore should be voluntary - continuous revolution: revolution should not cease once party achieved power but should be constant process of renewal to avoid complacency and or corruption - self criticism: officials should undergo criticism to prevent self satisfaction, only through this can it rectify false thoughts - ruthless determination: willpower and determination would be sufficent to bring about change provided everyone had total commitment, violence would be necessary for revolution - He made Marxism fit the Chinese situation, not the Chinese situation fit Marxism, by outmanoeuvring and, where necessary, removing opponents he was able to establish an unmatched authority and so impose his ideas.

Answer 4

- Despite movement liberation of land, the regime was fundamentally oppressive - Belief that unless the party maintained a constant struggle against reactionary thinking, the party would be betrayed from within - Rectification campaign was for party members to engage in public criticism which required them to admit their errors in front of assembled party members - Obliged to discover wrongdoing in thinking and had to study prescribed texts - 1000 CCP members were imprisoned and tortured, as a result 60 communist officials killed themselves rather than undergo public humiliation - Did slightly relent in severity and ruthlessness of the campaign however was not apologetic Show trials where they were accused of anti party thinking - The treatment terrified the CCP officials, they would express contrition for past mistakes then pledge total loyalty to Mao ZeDong and the party - Consequences of the rectification campaign Mao had rid himself of opposition and consolidated his position as leader. - He had finally triumphed over the pro-Moscow wing of the party. - He had begun to move towards cult status in Yanan. - Chinese communism was now so closely identified with him personally that it had become Maoism. - Mao was elected chairman of the Central Committee of the CCP in 1943.

Answer 5

- Troops round up landowners and then liberate their land to reallocate the peasants to invite them to cooperate in reorganizing the villages or region into a soviet - Hoped to persuade the peasants to become supporters of the CCP - Red army ordered to treat peasants nicely, effectively acting as a form of propaganda which endeared the red army to the rural population - Creation of local peasant associations and invited to improve CCP conditions Introduction of literacy and education programs - Provision of basic medical services The popularity of the CCP’s land policies led to the growth of the party from 40,000 to 1 million by 1945 - Underlying propaganda made Mao an essential part of strengthening the CCP Removing landlords from areas where red army held sway was often brutal - Despite the genuine popularity of the party, Yanan was extremely authoritarian - If villages did not conform with yanan regime demands for lang programme they were subjected to harsh penalties such as having all their crops an livestock confiscated and ruinous taxes imposed on them

Answer 6

economic: - Jiang mismanaged economy led to inflation rising to 300% by 1943 - Inflation reached uncontrollable heights after 1945 thereby destroying monetary system and undermined any claim of Jiang’s nationalist government being competent - led to disillusionment political: - personal rivalry among generals meant they put their own interests before those of NRA - Appointed commanders according to personal loyalty to him rather than military skills - his generals were indeed unreliable and due to CCP infiltration, for example his commander in Manchuria after 1946 was a CCP spy - military campaigns poorly commanded and Jiang did not trust his generals so could not fully commit in his campaigns whether in civil war or sino-japanese war - Government was inefficient and self seeking - GMD portrayed as unwilling to cooperate with the communists despite the latter’s willingness social: - Enforced conscription which increased desperation for manpower, however unable to raise enough volunteers to replenish armies - Peasants rounded up viciously for recruitment led to brutal treatment by the officers - Within the GMD army there was a lack of morale as they were ill treated and unmotivated, this in combination with conscription and their ill treatment led to to alienation - There was also high number of desertions and poor quality troops - This alienated the Nationalist supporters and foreign support historiography: Lynch argues that CCP were better positioned to fulfill the “Three principles of the people” than the GMD

Answer 7

- possessed the strength and ability as a leader, some historians argue without him they would be unable to win the war - some historians argue that he confidently followed his judgment and therefore had a carefully planned victory - However other historians argue that his success was attributed to his opportunism, opportunistic hope that the CCP would retain bases acquired and did not foresee the 3 years of civil war - ruthlessness in suppressing opposition within party and domination enabled him to have final word in organizing

Answer 8

- The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) was created in July 1946, forming a stronger military force for the CCP. - Using guerrilla warfare, the CCP successfully recaptured cities in Manchuria, despite being outnumbered three to one by GMD forces. - From 1947 to early 1948, GMD troops were cut off from supplies, and isolated units were continuously attacked by the PLA - Under him the PLA become army capable of conducting modern war from rural guerilla force - As the CCP gained strength in 1948, Mao shifted to a conventional warfare strategy to defeat the GMD. - The CCP launched offensives with heavy artillery and air support, pushing the GMD out of Beijing and Tianjin in January 1949. - From these positions, the CCP captured Shanghai in April, and Mao declared the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in October 1949.

Answer 9

- Enlightened policies in countryside meant he formed unbreakable bond with the Chinese people which led to great social revolution against Jiang and GMD - promoted an ideology of ‘national communism’ with a limited program of land reform. - This lead the CCP to have widespread peasant support, essential for waging an effective guerrilla war - The implementation of moderate land reform, abolishing debt and easing the tax burden in the territories under its control galvanized this support - Mao had also had a policy of only 10% commitment to fighting Japan during the Sino-Japanese War and focused on building bases and consolidating the CCP’s position. - By March 1948 the CCP had been able to ‘liberate’ 700 towns as the people had supported them and wanted reform.

Answer 10

- The royal family and elites in Korean ruling circles were paid off with money and titles while the highest posts in the central state and in the provinces were filled by Koreans who were loyal to Japan, many of whom had spent time in Japan - The first decade saw a heavy handed 'military policy'. where police had a large role throughout the country collecting taxes and enforcing laws. - authorized to conduct 'administrative trials' that were not subject to higher judicial review; this meant they could also hand out fines, jail terms and punishments such as whipping with bamboo canes. - Power was centralized with the Governor-General exercising authoritative and coercive control. - Central bureaucratic power extended into the counties and villages. Every Governor General was a military man and Japan stationed a big army in Korea to help ensure control. - Opposition to colonial control did exist but was treated harshly and never succeeded in disrupting Japanese rule. - This was also because it lacked coherence. Some nationalists wanted closer ties with the West while others wanted a return to Korean traditional values. - Others followed communist ideals following the success of the Russian Revolution in 1917.

Answer 11

education: - The Japanese government implemented laws that restricted Korean media and education. Schools taught exclusively in Japanese, and Korean history was excluded from curricula. - higher attendance rates among school-aged children by 1940. The number of schools was increased; about half of all children of school age were in attendance at elementary schools by 1940 - attempt was made to extinguish a separate Korean cultural identity and to embed Japanese values as indicated by the slogan 'Korea and the Homeland, Together as One'. - From 1935, Koreans had to recite an oath of loyalty to the emperor and worship at Shinto shrines. - In 1939, Koreans had to abandon their birth names and adopt Japanese-style surnames and given names. Those who refused to do so were not allowed to enroll at school and could not get food rations. - Children were punished for speaking Korean at school, and cultural practices were heavily regulated. - Public places adopted Japanese, too, and an edict to make films in Japanese soon followed. - crime to teach history from non-approved texts and authorities burned over 200,000 Korean historical documents, essentially wiping out the historical memory of Korea - royal palace Gyeongbokgung which symbolized Korean sovereignty 1/3 torn down and turned into tourist attractions for japanese visitors historiography: - FA Mckenzie: “It became more and more clear, however, that the aim of the Japanese was nothing else than the entire absorption of the country and the destruction of every trace of Korean nationality.”

Answer 12

- A massive land survey was carried out which overturned nearly forty thousand undocumented claims to land ownership; this had a devastating effect on many rural Korean families who now had to become tenant farmers paying rent on land that they had previously owned - Newly available land was taken over by Japanese-owned agricultural co-operatives By 1939 most large-scale industries were owned by Japan-based corporations or by Japanese corporations in Korea - Most Korean companies could not compete with Japanese firms, many of which enjoyed tax exemptions and official guarantees against losses. - Korean entrepreneurs were charged interest rates 25% higher than their Japanese counterparts - Although many Koreans found employment in the new Japanese factories, most held low-paid menial jobs. - Even when Korean workers did the same job as a Japanese worker, they received considerably less pay - Japan moved to build up the Korean economy as part of the empire-wide programme of economic self-sufficiency and preparation for war. - More railroads, roads, ports and manufacturing industries, which focused on areas such as chemical plants and munitions, were built - Japan took over Korea’s labor and land. Nearly 100,000 Japanese families settled in Korea with the land they had been given; they chopped down trees by the millions and planted non-native species, transforming a familiar landscape into something many Koreans didn’t recognize.

Answer 13

Jiang had received training in Moscow in the ealy 1920s but unlike Sun did not believe that CCP could easily be absorbed into the GMD then become harmless - Fought his way to GMD leadership after power struggle from Sun yat sens death in 1925, despite being trained in Moscow he detested communism - Very militaristic in terms of thinking of politics militaristically, while this may be considered a strength, it may also be a weakness as his solution was to destroy opposition rather than discussion and concession, similar to Mao in terms of dialetical struggle - Wanted to build nationalist china on the basis of the three people’s principles by Sun Yat sen - Jiang believed that communists marked an internal challenge that had to be crushed - However before taking full control of China the warlords had to be defeated meaning he needed to collaborate with CCP and comintern Strengths: - he had the support of the GMD’s main military forces, significant economic support from bankers and business in Shanghai and the backing of several warlords, including Feng Yuxiang. - Foreign governments subsequently recognized the new GMD regime in Nanjing as the official government. - Jiang's marriage into the Soong family also provided vital links to the richest sectors of Chinese commerce and banking and it was from the urban middle and upper classes, symbolized by the Soong family, that the elite of the GMD was drawn.

Answer 14

- was proceeding of the may 4th movement - movement launched by the writers of New Youth magazine, promoted a new society based on unconstrained individuals rather than traditional Confucian system - abandoned traditional writing methods for vernacular language - marked the end of patriarchal views in favor of individual freedom and women's liberation - led to reexamination on Confucian texts and ancient classical tests - Chen Duxiu, Hu Shih, Lu Xun, and Li Dazhao led the movement through journals like New Youth - While the New Culture Movement was largely intellectual, the May Fourth Movement turned these ideas into mass political action, involving students, workers, and merchants. - accelerated anti imperialism, nationalism - new culture movement provided the ideological framework that the may 4th movement politicized historiography: - Orthodox historians viewed the New Culture Movement as a revolutionary break with feudal thought and social practice and the seedbed of revolutionary leaders who created the Chinese Communist Party and went on to found the People's Republic of China in 1949

Answer 15

- launched by Chiang Kaishek and the GMD - aimed to revive Confucian morals combined with militaristic discipline to serve GMD political control - countering communism and western decadence - was jiang's attempt at unifying china under GMD rule to counter CCP influence and japanese invasion - Like European fascism, the New Life Movement sought to reinforce Jiang’s authority by fostering loyalty and obedience to a single leader. - GMD pushed the movement and its values extensively in printed material, public rallies and parades and changes to school curricula, despite this government backing, the New Life Movement failed to gain widespread public support - ideological basis of neo Confucianism and fascist undertones - top-down state campaign enforced via police, schools, and propaganda. - Focused on public behavior (e.g., banning smoking, strict dress codes, "cleanliness as patriotism") - movement was largely failure, seen as propaganda overshadowed by war

Answer 16

- japanese belief that under severe economic recession it was necessary to acquire living space for tis population and resource for industry or else it would be unable to sustain modern state aimed to send 1 million households to Manchuria - despite being impoverished Manchuria was seen as a social experiment which through industrialization could become a paradise for coexsistence - Chinese land and resources therefore had to be seized for first steps toward wider japanese control, Manchuria was 4x the size of Japan - sought to destabilize the Chinese republic and then use instability to claim right to interference to protect Japanese interests - Great depression and contraction of international trade meant that Japan could no longer undergo trade and therefore had to consolidate control over China especially with 80% of Japan overseas investment and ¼ of international trade being with China - Great Depression also cause significant collapse of industry and foreign countries restricted trade to protect industry leading to significant Japanese economic issues, silk industry made up 1/2 of farmers industry, prices were 1/5 of what they were before led to 3 million unemployed - - Japan was confident that they would be able to undergo total military control of the country - also believed that Manchuria would be a buffer to Russia and that they were defending hard earned territory especially after Russo Japanese war where 100,000 Japanese soldiers died - Judged that internal divide meant that they would receive a half hearted military response, therefore quite easy to overcome - No clear international support would be given Japanese fear of being isolated and encirclement by the US and ally forces

Answer 17

- provided pretext for japanese invasion in 1931 - part of GMD army acting on their own initiative concocted plot to blow up southern Manchurian railway in Mukden then blame on chinese - officers in league with prowar party in Tokyo then appealed to japanese government to authorize punishment on chinese - japanese guangdong army launched full scale sweep across Manchuria, within 6 months was under japanese occuption - japanese government had no choice to sanction formal takeover of Manchuria results: - created Manchukuo through consolidation of occupation of Manchuria, declared independent and ruled by last emperor of Manchu dynasty PuYi - increased widespread anti-japanese and antiforeign sentiment in china - boycotts escalated to the point to state of emergency - chinese fighting back led to international sympathy - japanese bombings killed civilians which caused international outrage

Answer 18

- jiang appealed to the LON to condemn Japan, hoped that major powers would step in and prevent encroachment but dissapointed LON condemned the actions but took no action, Japan ignored the international opinion and withdrew from League in 1933 - The League was slow to act, but did respond and in November 1931 ordered a commission to investigate events in Manchuria headed by Lord Lytton. - The Lytton Report found that it did not recognize Japanese sovereignty of the territory. - sympathetic to Japanese position but condemned Japanese aggression as it became a puppet state administered by Japan - The US attempted to influence other states to take a firm position. - Secretary of State Henry Stimson declared that the US would not recognize the new state. - The British decided not to pursue the US policy of ‘non-recognition’ until the situation was better understood. - The Japanese delegation argued that it was intent on ‘helping’ China but had also broke the 9 power treaty - Unanimously, League members backed the Lytton Report’s findings. - This meant that the League rejected Japan’s contention that Manchukuo was a legitimate independent state. - The Japanese then walked out of the League of Nations. - LON had imposed limited response only “moral sanctions” - Jiang therefore realized no help would be provided and ordered forces to fight therefore proceeded to coexist with the Japanese presence in Manchuria until upsurge of opposition compelled him to oppose them through second united front with CCP - Japan condemned and moral standing damaged seen as expansionist and unwilling to abide by treaties led to further Japanese isolationism

Answer 19

- After the Xi’an incident and the establishment of the Second United Front, the CCP continued to use guerrilla warfare as a means to wage war against the Japanese. - During the second Sino-Japanese war [1937-45] the strategy had many advantages as it was used effectively to protest peasants and villages from Japanese attack and it also was an excellent tool for propaganda as the CCP could claim that it was the real party taking on Japan. - Guerrilla warfare meant that the CCP incurred fewer casualties to the GMD who fought conventionally against Japan. historiography: - Hsu argues that the outcome of the Chinese civil war was determined by the effects of the war against Japan, believes that the war fundamentally weakened the GMD whilst strengthening the CCP.

Answer 20

Xian incident 1936: The kidnapping was carried out by Zhang who was now determined to force Jiang to adopt an anti-Japanese stance and halt his assaults on the communists. Jiang seized by troops and handed over to CCP who would spare his life as long as he lead a genuine resistance against the Japanese and seized persecution of CCP Agreement to: Cease all attempts to suppress the CCP Recognize the CCP as a legitimate party Lead a new united front against the Japanes invader Results: - The government in Nanjing was divided over whether to respond to the kidnapping with military force or to pursue negotiations. - The government sent in an army and air-force assault on Xian but also sent Jiang’s adviser to talk. -Most of Jiang’s warlord allies waited to see what happened. -However, 275 young army generals who were graduates of the Whampoa military academy sent Zhang a telegram which threatened him against harming Jiang. - Stalin urged Mao to secure Jiang’s release stated that soviets would support second united front but only with Jiang leading the new united front - Jiang’s personal popularity had been boosted by the kidnapping. - Zhang was court-marshalled for insubordination and sentenced to 10 years in prison which was then reduced to house arrest. - The CCP agreed to submit their armies to Jiang’s command if a full national front against the Japanese was announced - Mao reluctant to join united front as he did not want the PLA to be under the command of GMD officers

Answer 21

- Minor clash between chinese and japanese troops occurred at Marco polo bridge where Japanese soldiers were stationed - a solider had gone missing and a search was called implying the man was kidnapped of killed by Chinese forces led to exchange of fire with Chinese troops and two day stand off - Confrontation deliberately planned by Japanese to be used as pretext to demand GMD government yield further authority to occupying forces in China - Jiang refused to make concessions and therefore declared chinese people in state of total war against japan, fought seperate armies and although they liased their mutual distrust meant they rarely acted as combined forces - Communist forces mainly engaged in guerilla tactics - Jiang appeal for national unity after Marco Polo bridge incident indicated start of second united front, therefore was a reactivation of Xian agreement - However, nature of second united front was never a genuine alliance

Answer 22

- International reaction was appalled as there were able to see the depiction within film and cinemas - However did not create real determination from international community to become involved with struggle - LON continued to criticize Japanese excesses but protests were ineffective - American also condemned Japan for illegality but other than individual volunteers the USA did not become directly involved with the struggle - European response was also unwilling to respond, expressed anger but apart from taking precautions to safeguard their own interests they made no move to resist japan Until peal harbor the commercial links with japan were still maintained - From Axis powers aka germany and italy china’s humiliation earned their approval, japanese seen as an asian version for themselves - Led to the creation of the anti comintern pact where germany giving lending hand to germany - This meant that in the opening stages of the sino japanese war china stood alone, full scale attack was met with little opposition

Answer 23

- American foreign policy at the time had been toward neutrality USA did not want to become embroiled in foreign issues - did not want repeat do WW1 had to focus on domestic issues including Great Depression, had trade interests with Japan and had no naval force to back up any threats - However american japanese underlying hostilities - Naval rivalry - Growing japanese militarism alarmed US government - Anti comintern pact led to fear that japanese were becoming an ally to germany which would leave them free to fulfill expansionist aims - Japan believed that they had sufficient economic reserves for next two years ahead in the event of war however believed that US was trying to encircle them due to 100% of oil imported from USA made them vulnerable - However due to japan’s brutal occupation of china and gowing ambition toward south east asia led US administration to believe these principles were no longer realistic and that conflict with japan was unavoidable - US started restricting arms and supplies to Japan and cancelled any existing US Japanese trade agreements - Japan entered the tripartite pact with germany and italy committing to retaliating militarily if any one of the countries were attacked

Answer 24

- triple tripartite pact signed with axis powers meant that if one nation was attacked the others would enter was as well but also established clear divide in spheres of influence Japan would be able to keep the colonies of the defeated forces within Asia while Germany kept Europe - therefore when UK and France defeated Japan able to seize Malaya Thailand and indochina colonies - worried the Allie’s therefore enacted trade embargo and limited trade froze Japanese assets - Japan could not win war with china as they could not sustain key supply lines being cut off - therefore had to conquest and gain resources from European colonies - conducted peace talks with Roosevelt while planning for Pearl Harbor attack, US wanted them to respect the territorial integrity of its neighbors - 1941 Japanese air force launched Operation Tora Tora as an unannounced attack on the US pacific fleet on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii - led to 90% of mid pacific air and sea powers destroyed or badly damaged and 2000 US military and civilian personnel killed before war was even declared - Japan claimed that it was due to USA trade embargo which was an intent to destroy the Japanese economy - For pearl harbor the japanese wanted to quickly disable and strike the US pacific forces which would force Americans into immediate peace on japanese terms.this would drive america out of the pacific leaving japan free to conquer and consolidate control of south east Asia - However failed as USA declared war on Japan and resolved to a total defeat of Japan - Japan driven by the need to increase oil supplies and had to take territories as far south as the philippines and burma, this resulted in overstretching - some historians argue that the US had deliberately provoked the Japanese into war through trade embargo while others argue that peace talks could have lifted embargo and prevented war - as they attacked Pearl Harbor also attacked Hong Kong Singapore then later Malaya Philippines Significance: - China was seen by USA as the means of defeating Japan. Therefore supplied vast resources in effort to turn it into base of operations - USA invested over $1 billion in China - Gave political and military boost to Jiang - USA turned toward Jiang for liaison, however was too preoccupied with the GMD and therefore did not accommodate the CCP - During Japanese occupation CCP had deliberately down played their political aims, put emphasis on national struggle - CCP had also seen the cooperation between the USSR and the USA and believed that ideological difference were not a large barrier to cooperation

Answer 25

- triple tripartite pact signed with axis powers meant that if one nation was attacked the others would enter was as well but also established clear divide in spheres of influence Japan would be able to keep the colonies of the defeated forces within Asia while Germany kept Europe - therefore when UK and France defeated Japan able to seize Malaya Thailand and indochina colonies - worried the Allie’s therefore enacted trade embargo and limited trade froze Japanese assets - Japan could not win war with china as they could not sustain key supply lines being cut off - therefore had to conquest and gain resources from European colonies - conducted peace talks with Roosevelt while planning for Pearl Harbor attack, US wanted them to respect the territorial integrity of its neighbors - 1941 Japanese air force launched Operation Tora Tora as an unannounced attack on the US pacific fleet on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii - led to 90% of mid pacific air and sea powers destroyed or badly damaged and 2000 US military and civilian personnel killed before war was even declared - Japan claimed that it was due to USA trade embargo which was an intent to destroy the Japanese economy - For pearl harbor the japanese wanted to quickly disable and strike the US pacific forces which would force Americans into immediate peace on japanese terms.this would drive america out of the pacific leaving japan free to conquer and consolidate control of south east Asia - However failed as USA declared war on Japan and resolved to a total defeat of Japan - Japan driven by the need to increase oil supplies and had to take territories as far south as the philippines and burma, this resulted in overstretching - some historians argue that the US had deliberately provoked the Japanese into war through trade embargo while others argue that peace talks could have lifted embargo and prevented war - as they attacked Pearl Harbor also attacked Hong Kong Singapore then later Malaya Philippines Significance: - China was seen by USA as the means of defeating Japan. Therefore supplied vast resources in effort to turn it into base of operations - USA invested over $1 billion in China - Gave political and military boost to Jiang - USA turned toward Jiang for liaison, however was too preoccupied with the GMD and therefore did not accommodate the CCP - During Japanese occupation CCP had deliberately down played their political aims, put emphasis on national struggle - CCP had also seen the cooperation between the USSR and the USA and believed that ideological difference were not a large barrier to cooperation

Answer 26

- jiang reluctant to fight the Japanese was hoping that the Allie’s would step in, Chinese boycott of Japanese products reducing Japanese sales of goods by 2/3 - had also believed that the GMD army was no match against well trained guangdong army and resistance would end in defeat - sending troops to fight against Japanese would have weakened jiang hold on the rest of China which he was trying to bring under centralized control - The Second Sino-Japanese War significantly weakened the GMD, exposing their inability to effectively resist Japanese forces and leading to a loss of popular support. - The GMD’s inability to effectively defend against Japanese aggression led to widespread disillusionment among the Chinese populace, diminishing their support and credibility. - The GMD army also lacked the will to fight - Savage methods of recruitment and ferocious discipline did not inspire loyalty and discipline - Also unable to win the hearts and minds of the chinese people especially amongst the chinese peasantry - This was due to abusive treament and the GMD’s harsh taxation, conscritpiton policies - Jiang Jieshi's reliance on US support became evident, as he expected American troops to lead the fight against Japan, which did not materialize the USSR had sent 300 military aircraft ammunition and 250 million USD - The GMD's failure to protect Chinese cities and civilians during the war diminished their legitimacy and authority among the population. - after the war, the GMD faced the challenge of reasserting control over regions that had been liberated by the CCP

Answer 27

- The war allowed the CCP to expand its influence by effectively mobilizing peasants and conducting guerrilla warfare against the Japanese, gaining popular support in rural areas. - Mao used the war to promote anti-Japanese sentiment, framing the conflict as a struggle for national survival, which resonated with the Chinese public. - The CCP positioned itself as a defender of the Chinese people, contrasting with the GMD's struggles, which bolstered their image as a legitimate alternative. - The temporary alliance between the GMD and CCP under the Second United Front highlighted the ideological differences and rivalries that would resurface after the war. - The war's end saw the CCP occupying many areas previously held by the Japanese, allowing them to assert control and governance in those regions. - The GMD's inability to reclaim authority over liberated areas after the war further weakened its position and credibility. - The end of the war led to a power vacuum, with the CCP rapidly consolidating control in areas previously occupied by Japan, complicating the GMD’s efforts to re-establish authority - The war's devastation had lasting impacts on Chinese society, with many civilians suffering, leading to increased support for the CCP’s promises of land reform and social change

Answer 28

1. battle of shanghai 1937 - Demonstrated Jiang’s flawed tactical judgement 1. Initially Jiang held the initiative since GMD troops outnumbered the Japanese in the Shanghai area by over ten to one 2. A series of fortified block houses had been built along the railways linking Shanghai and Nanjing, giving the National Revolutionary army protected movement of men and supplies 3. Japan gave little attention to strengthening defense and their warships in shanghai harbor seemed vulnerable - Wanted to take enemy by surprise and gave order to begin bombing raids on Japanese ships but NRA messages had been intercepted - Therefore chinese pilots missed their targets and killed more chinese civillians than japanese troops, Chinese planes had been aiming at Japanese destroyers anchored at Yangtze River but ended up accidentally dropping bombs on the crowded bund killing over 1,000 people - Allowed japanese to reinforce their position and jiang ordered all out attack on city led to 9 week fighting - Heavy shelling and bombing by japanese NRA attempt to break japanese defense was abandoned when japanese landed south of Shanghai, resulted in Chinese being outflanked - Retreat planned and Japan rejected Jiang’s truce 250,000 million killed and Japanese 50,000 loss - By 1938 beijing, shanghai, guangzhou, nanjing all fallen to japan 2. nanjing massacre 1937-38 - Grimmest aspect of war was the savagery in treatment of chinese, confirmed for them the conviction that Japanes were entitled race - some historians suggest that the acts were caused by frustration among the Japanese officers and soldiers who were deeply angry due to persistence of war also racist factor jonathan Debby says Chinese were being compared to ants on the floor - “The chinese people are bacteria infesting world civilization” - Led to 1937 rape of nanjing 300,000 chinese people slaughtered during four week period - The ways of killing included shooting, bayoneting, beheading, burying alive, soaking in kerosene and setting on fire - 20,000 girls and women serially raped regardless of their age - Half of city burned to ashes - Intended to spread terror among local populations throughout China to scare them into submission, chinese could only flee to international concession areas and hope that it would provide protection - Japanese soon gained recognition for savagery toward military and civilian captive Three all campaign: - After regiments campaign and rape of nanking was “three all” slogan “kill all, burn all, loot all”, japanese forces launched terror campaign against population which supported communist - Whole villages were systematically destroyed

Answer 29

-Talks between CCP and GMD broke down at first seemed as though Jiang and the nationalists held the advantage as they held USA support -lend -lease scheme which emant issuing millions of dollars worth of military equipment to the nationalists - provide d transport to carry over 500,000 troops to the zones surrendered by the japanese - 55,000 US marines had been sent to the northern ports as 'military advisers' to the GMD. - The result was that it continued to finance and support Jiang and the Nationalists, regardless of the fact that the GMD had long since forfeited the support of the majority of the Chinese people. - The US did give the GMD considerable assistance, $3 billion in aid for example, however it also cajoled Jiang to agree to ceasefires in 1946 and 1947 when the GMD had the upper hand in the war. - These enforced ceasefires allowed the CCP to recover and regroup and meant the GMD lost momentum. - US supporting the GMD undermined the political credibility of Jiang’s government. - The CCP were able to present themselves as the true nationalists in China and not beholden to another western imperialist force. - Jiang therefore entered war with superior troop numbers, greater material and resources than the communists: - Outnumbered the PLA by four to one - However despite superior military it was his mistakes and the poor showing of the GMD militarily, politically and economically that gave victory to his opponents leading them to throw away their initial advantages

Answer 30

- After war USA hoped that the two parties would be brought together through power sharing, intermittent talks were held with Mao declaring himself willing to compromise, however 1935 Jiang broke off negotiations announcing he had no intention to share power with communists - Further talks held again for the first time in 20 years however they were preparing for civil war - President Truman believed a compromise could still be achieved and sent General George Marshall to broker an agreement. - Marshall spent months trying to revive GMD-CCP talks but concluded by March 1946 that a settlement was impossible. - Unable to reach agreement of compromise due to fear: - GMD fear that communists would publicly recognize Jiang but would be unwilling to cooperate in practice and would overthrow him - Communists in doubt that the nationalists would honor promise to allow them to retain the liberated areas that they held Nether side trusted the other

Answer 31

1. Huaihai Campaign 1948-49 - Huaihai Campaign was a strategically decisive victory for the People's Liberation Army (PLA) against the Nationalist army. It ranks as one of the major campaigns in world military history due to its magnitude, duration, and strategic impact - largest military operation of the civil war, securing east-central China for the CCP - involved massive mobilization of peasants and resulted in significant Nationalist casualties and defections - the capture of Xuzhou, a strategic city, marked a decisive turning point in the conflict, as it led to the collapse of the KMT's defenses in northern China. - campaign involved 600,000 PLA troops - The CCP mobilized approximately 5 million civilian laborers to move supplies to support PLA combat units. Hundreds of thousands of women were organized to sew uniforms, make shoes, and grind grain - PLA eliminated 555,000 Nationalist troops, liberating a vast area north of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River 2. Pingjin campiagn 1948-49 - this campaign focused on the Beijing-Tianjin area. The PLA encircled and defeated Nationalist forces, capturing Tianjin and eventually securing Beijing peacefully - marked the end of Nationalist dominance in northern China and set the stage for the final push towards the establishment of the People's Republic of China - campaign involved 1,000,000 soldiers - From November 29 to December 20, 1948, the PLA strategically encircled the Nationalist troops, dividing and surrounding the enemy in five isolated cities: Peiping, Tianjin, Zhangjiakou, Xinbao’an, and Tanggu - Except for about 50,000 GMD soldiers in Tanggu who fled by sea, over 520,000 soldiers of GMD troops were annihilated or relocated, and almost all the areas within northern China were liberated

Answer 32

- japan faced increasing pressure that they were fighting unwinnable war in china due to push back from US in pacific - this led to increased harships for koreans and more intense propoganda to ensure koreans totally loyal - korea shifted toward "total war" policies as economy and population were mobilized for war effort - koreans filled labor shortages in japan and manchuria, forced to work in coal mines, military plants, ammunition factories and suffered terrible conditions, led to thousands dying for inhumane conditions during allied bombing - As many as 70,000 Korean males died as manual laborers in Japan or as 'volunteers' in the Imperial Army during the war. - koreans joined imperial army and were conscripted - Nearly 725,000 Korean workers were made to work in Japan and its other colonies, and as World War II loomed - Japan forced hundreds of thousands of Korean women into life as “comfort women”, sexual slaves who served in military brothels - koreans became prisoners of war and were repatriated to korea however were not allowed to become citizens of japan and were shunned by korean government - 148 Koreans were convicted of war crimes and 3 of those who convicted were sentenced to death

Answer 33

- Women were rounded up on the streets of Japanese-occupied territories, convinced to travel to what they thought were nursing units or jobs, or purchased from their parents as indentured servants. - women who had been forced into sexual slavery became societal outcasts. - Many died of sexually transmitted infections or complications from their violent treatment at the hands of Japanese soldiers; others committed suicide.

Answer 34

- 1945, the United States and the USSR captured the peninsula and ended Japanese rule - Already at the Tehran Conference of 1943, where the Allied powers met together for the first time, Korea had been discussed. - The Allied powers agreed that Japan should lose all of its conquered territories and they declared that they were, "mindful of the enslavement of the people of Korea, determined that in due course Korea shall become free and independent." - after dropping atomic bombs on japan, ussr joined war against japan, advanced rapidly then drew up divisonto 38th parallel - US having control in the South and thus control of the capital Seoul. The Soviets agreed and the decision was incorporated into General Order No 1 for the surrender of Japan - Korea was divided into two occupation zones that were intended to be temporary - unified state was never given back to the newly independent Korean people - Korean War broke out between the Soviet and Chinese-backed northern half of Korea and the United States and United Nations-backed south - The original plan for Korean independence as agreed at the Moscow Conference was hard to achieve because: - As the Cold War developed, the USA and the USSR became less willing to co-operate - Separate administrations emerged on either side of the 38th parallel. In the South, the US military government put forward as leader Syngman Rhee while the Soviets supported the Communists and backed a faction headed by Kim Il Sung. historiography: - Bruce Cumings: 'The crucible of the period of national division and opposing states that still exists in Korea was the years from 1943 to 1953. The political and ideological divisions that we associate with the Cold War were the reasons for Korea's division; they came early to Korea, before the onset of the global Cold War, and today they outlast the end of the Cold War everywhere else.'

Answer 35

Political control: - Jiang had already appointed general chen cheng governor of Taiwan in December 1948 - GMD control was stabalised after riots whichhad taken place against Chen Yi in 1947 which were put down in brutal massacres Military/strategic reasons: - There were already 1 million GMD troops on Taiwan who had retreated there after CCP victories in 1949 - The GMD and PLA understood that it would be difficult for CCP to retake the island, therefore to defeat the GMD on Taiwan the CCP would have to overcome difficulties with transport, equipment and supplies against the well-equipped and experienced land, sea and air forces of the GMD Economic rationale: - The taiwanese economy had flourished under japanese control - Taiwan had a sound economy that the GMD wanted to exploit

Answer 36

- Jiang understood that GMD defeat was result of economic problems within regime Land reform was enacted in 3 stages Included compulsory reduction of annual land rent from 50-70% - The living standard of around 300,000 farm families improved. This meant more people could afford to buy houses and cattle. - The second stage of land reform began in June 1951 with the sale of 430,000 acres of public land. - reform allowed 139,688 farmers to become landowners. - The third stage of land reform stared in January 1953 with the compulsory sale of private and tenanted land to the government for resale to farmers. 90% of land was owned by the farmers that worked it by 1968. Industrial development: - 4 year economic development plan after 1950 promoted medium and small sized businesses Aluminium, textiles, electricity, chemicals, paper and sugar all grew. - By end 1956 2,000 factories were in operation and the industrial workforce increased from 274,000 to 340,000. - The production index doubled and incomes rose by 42% between 1953 and 1956. The subsequent four-year plans were also successful. Education: - 5% of district budgets was given over to education and by 1967 literacy rates had reached 97.15%. - The growth of the education system led to the establishment of universities and research institutes.

Answer 37

- On February 27, 1947, an elderly woman selling contraband cigarettes in Taipei was confronted by GMD officers. - A crowd gathered, and in the confusion, an officer shot into the crowd, killing one person. The officers fled, but the crowd marched to the police station demanding the officer's arrest and execution. - The next day, public anger intensified as protesters occupied a radio station, broadcasting the incident and inciting violence against mainlanders. - A call to gather in Taipei's New Park led to a march on the provincial offices, where police fired into the crowd, killing two protesters. This marked a key turning point, highlighting the GMD's disregard for Taiwanese lives. - Violence escalated, with over a thousand mainlanders killed. The Resolution Committee in Taipei set up island-wide organizations to maintain order and demanded more autonomy from Governor Chen Yi, as the mood shifted towards open rebellion. - Troops from the mainland were deployed and attacked indiscriminately, particularly in Taipei, Chiayi, Kaohsiung, and Keelung. The atrocities peaked between March 12 and May 15. - Estimates of those killed vary from 2,000 to 100,000, with a commonly cited figure of 20-30,000. - Following the 228 Incident, the period known as the 'White Terror' ensued.

Answer 38

- The period of martial law lasted from 1948 to 1987 was also known as the White Terror. - The GMD imprisoned approximately 140,000 Taiwanese during this time and executed between 3,000 and 4,000 alleged opponents of the regime. - The peak of the executions occurred from 1950 to 1953 when prosecutions of suspected Chinese communists deemed ‘bandit spies’ was high. - During the White Terror the GMD imprisoned Taiwanese intellectuals who they feared could resist its control or who had genuine sympathy for the CCP. - Mainlanders that had been evacuated with the GMD from the mainland were often under suspicion and many were imprisoned. - Martial law implemented on the island for 40 years - Claimed that taiwan needed to be under martial law to prepare for attack by the PRC, to prepare for assault on mainland and to maintain vigilance against infiltration - When Jiang resumed the presidency on Taiwan, despite the democratic constitution his government was a one-party state and there was strict government control of the press and media. - All Marxist material was banned. Anyone who criticized Jiang, his family or GMD rule, or supported the Taiwanese independence movement could be arrested by the secret police. - Effective from 1948, provisions in the constitution, the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion, strengthened the executive powers of the president and government. - These provisions also facilitated Jiang remaining as president after his first two terms. -All opposition parties were banned. Jiang also purged his own party believing that corruption within the GMD had been a key factor in its defeat by the communists on the mainland. - Jiang claimed that these repressive measures were needed to protect national security, and claimed that Taiwan remained in a state of war. - Even local language broadcasts were prohibited. - The government pointed out to the international community that it was not as repressive as Mao’s regime on the mainland. - Jiang was intent on destroying the communists and was determined that any communist agents or sympathizers on Taiwan would be wiped out - The civil war on the mainland was ongoing, and the GMD wanted to secure Taiwan as quickly as possible to return to the ‘real’ war.

Answer 39

- The modern independence movement was evident during the period of Japanese occupation from 1895. - It attempted to set up a Taiwanese parliament and to gain support from the workers and peasants. Then in the late 1920s the Taiwanese Communist Party was established which promoted a proletarian state. - The movement was supported by Mao Zedong as an ‘anti-Japanese force’ in the 1930s. Taiwanese independence movements were suppressed by the Japanese. - Following the restoration of Taiwan to the Republic of China (ROC) and the GMD government, tensions between the mainland Chinese and the Taiwanese led to a revolutionary ‘national liberation movement’ which became increasingly pro-Maoist rather than orthodox communist in outlook. - The Republic of China held that it was the legitimate government of all of China and refused to vacate seats in 1947 in the Legislative Yuan held by mainlanders. - A key task for those promoting ‘independence’ was to establish a clear and distinct Taiwanese identity to legitimatize the struggle, for example the promotion of the use of the Taiwanese language as opposed to the school-taught Mandarin. - The brutal suppression of the 228 incident in 1947 became the cornerstone in the independence movement. - Jiang feared that the US were engaged in a plot to overthrow him in support of the Taiwanese independence movement. - The movement gained some momentum via the Treaty of San Francisco between the US and Japan in 1951. - In the treaty Japan renounced its rights to the island of Taiwan in 1952 and no successor state was specified - Until the end of martial law in 1987, any discussion of Taiwanese independence was forbidden. - Throughout the 1980s the pro-democracy movement grew in Taiwan and led to the establishment of a new political party, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP)