Cognitive Psychology Flashcards
what are the types of memory and what are they?
sensory memory- initial contact from stimuli
Short term memory- information we are currently thinking about, comes from paying attention to sensory memories
long term memory- continual storage of information which is usually outside of our awareness, can be called working memory when in use
how do we remember?
encoding- sensory information changed to we can make sense of it
storage- we put information to the back of our minds until needed
retrieval- the ability to recover information in storage
how long do the three types of memory last?
SM- Transient, only there is we pay attention
STM- seconds, minutes
LTM- hours, days, weeks, years
why do we forget
AVAILABILITY- we do not pay attention
ACCESSIBILITY- we cannot retrieve he information
INTERFERENCE- information is confused, 2 pieces of information are confused
how accurate is our memory?
memory is fragile and falible,
- there is the freudian theory of ‘repression’ where undesired memories are repressed.
- theres Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory, where memory is a constructive process involving prior knowledge and beliefes, -the phenomenon of false memory where we posses memories that never happened that we believe to be true
what can influence memory performance?
age
emotional status (anxiety or stress)
brain injuries or surgery
what was Peterson’s and Peterson’s experiment (1959)
participants showed nonsense trigrams and to recall them after 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds. during pause they were given an interference task of counting backwards
results- after 3 secs 80% remembered, after 18 secs 10% remembered
conclusion- when rehearsal is prevented very little can be kept in STM.
describe Bahrick et als experiment
participants asked to list classmates (in free recall) then shown photos and asked to recall names or given names and asked to match them to a name.
results- within 15 yrs- 90% accuracy on recognition, 60% on free recall
after 30 yrs- 80% accuracy on recognition, 40% on free recall
conclusion- longterm memories in real life settings
describe Jacobs (1987) experiment
participants presented with string of letters or digits to repeat back in the same order. the number of letters increased
results- participants recalled 9 digits, 7 letters
conclusion- Jacob’s concluded STM has a limited capacity of 5-9 items. but there were individual differences.
describe Millers (1956) research into capacity of STM
magic number of 7, plus or minus 2.
we use chunking to combine individual items into larger chunks to increase capacity
describe Baddeley (1966) experiment
participants given 4 sets of words either acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar or semantically dissimilar. independent groups design asked to recall words immediately or following a 20 minute task.
results- difficulty recalling acoustically similar words when recalling immediately (STM), difficulty recalling semantically similar words when recalling when recalling after an interval (LTM)
conclusion-
-patterns of confusion suggest STM likely to rely on acoustic encoding
-LTM on semantic encoding.
what factors influence the capacity of STM
influence of LTM
reading aloud
rhythmic grouping
pronunciation time (2 secs)
what factors effect the duration of STM
maintenance rehearsal
deliberate intention to recall
amount of information
what factors effect the encoding in STM
sounds of words
other types on encoding
what factors effect the duration of LTM
childhood amnesia
how is duration measured
thorough learning
what factors effect the encoding in LTM
acoustic encoding
visual encoding
describe Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) experiment
ps given a list of words, one at a time then asked to recall them in any order. participants split into two groups, immediate recall, or recall after counting backwards for 30 seconds.
results- immediate recall groups remembered the first and last delayed group remembered the start.
conclusions- words at start in LTM, words at end fresh in STM, primary and recency effect
describe Milners (1966) case study of a brain damaged patient
HM
- brain surgery to reduce severe epilepsy resulted in brain damage
- HM’s personality and intellect was intact
- could remember events from before the surgery
- he could not form and new memories
- this suggests that the hippocampus is involved in new memory making
evaluate the MSM
influential early model
-supports idea that STM and LTM are qualitatively separate stores
-over simplification of memory structures and processes.
-Baddeley dual task study (1973) participants given digit strings to rehearse while at the same time carrying out verbal reasoning
results- recall digit strings and perform accurately at VR
conclusion- STM consists of separate stores
- Craik and Tulvig (1975) pps given a list of nouns and were questioned about each one. there were three kinds of questions, shallow processing, (was it in capitals) phonemic processing (did it rhyme with), semantic processing. (was it a fruit)
results- remembered words from condition 3 and least from 1
conclusion- elaborative rehearsal rather than maintenance rehearsal
- suggests that STM and LTM are simple “one box” stores. Schacter suggests the LTM has semantic memory( knowledge), episodic memory( events), procedural memory ( learning to ride a bike)
who came up with the WMM
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
outline Atkinson and Schiffen (1968) Multi-Store Model
Environmental Stimuli Sensory Memory Attention Short Term Memory Maintainance Rehearsal Long Term Memory Retrival
what is the central executive
> acts as an attention device, >supervises whole system
decides which sub-system to send info to
involved in problem solving, decision making, planning
very limited capacity
describe the WWM
STM is a flexible and complex systems that consists of a central control mechanism assisted by ‘slave systems’ - the phonological loop and visual spatial scratchpad.
what is the visual- spatial scratchpad
> deals with how info looks and is laid out
manipulates info
limited capacity, which is independent to the phonological loop
what is the Phonological loop
> auditory information
holds acoustically coded items for up to 2 seconds
articulatory control process, which allows subvocal repetition, keeping alive info in the working memory
limited capacity, independent to VSS
Evaluate the WMM
> credible explanation compared to MSM
RLA used as criteria by with Sz are diagnosed. After Park stated that problems with working memory define between healthy and non healthy patients.
> central executive is too vague and doesn’t really explain anything. It is more complex than represented. EVR case study of man who had brain surgery who could perform well as reasoning tasks but not make decisions (what to eat) this suggests the CE is more complex
what is the episodic buffer
aded later by Baddeley in 2000, an initial model lacked a general store for all different kinds of info.
>LTM relates to the model
>integrates info from other components of working memory and also LTM and puts into sequential order
Limited capacity
evidence for the phonological loop
Baddeley et al’s word length effect pronunciation time rather tan 7 digits suggest PL is responsible for this
evidence for visual spatial scratchpad
Baddeley et al- participants given a visual tracking task that involved tracking a moving light and given another task. could perform tracking task and task 1 (verbal), but not task 2 (F)
what three stages does an eyewitness go through and what can go wrong
1) encodes in LTM, his can be partial or distorted
2) retains the information, memories can be lost or modified, or interference can occur
3) witness retrieves the memory from storage, what happens during the reconstruction may affect accuracy
evidence for episodic buffer
Baddeley et al found that when participants were shown words and then asked for immediate recall, their performance was better for sentences than unrelated words. around 6 unrelated words are remembered and 16 related words. the findings have been explained in terms of LTM as relate words are chunked
what is an eyewitness testimony
evidence provided by people who witnesses a particular event or crime, relying on recall from memory
what are the problems with eyewitness testimony
schemas leading questions weapon focus effects of anxiety retrieval cues age of witness
bartlett’s constructivist approach (1932) theory
memory is not a direct record of what was witnessed but an active process where we construct coherent memories by combing new information with what we have already stored. it depends on; info stored in memory, how info is understood, structured, organised.
what did Bartlett use to show his constructivist approach. and what was the result
‘The War of the Ghosts’, when recalled by UK participants it was shorter, less detailed, some details changed, more western structure
what five ways can schemas affect accuracy of recall
>distortion to fit with expectations >ignoring info not in keeping with expectations >filling in missing info >guessing >omission of detail
what is a schema
knowledge structures that relate to commonly encountered objects, situations or people, built up to help us make sense of the world. they act as filters to perception and recall we change info to make sense of it.
Describe Loftus and Palmer (1974) can memory be altered by misleading questions post event questions experiment (part 2)
150 students saw one film clip, divided Into 3 groups, ‘hit’, ‘smashed’ and a control group with no leading questions.
A week later they were asked if there was and broken glass
“Yes” 32% smashed, 14% hit and 12% control but there was no broken glass
Describe Loftus and Palmer (1974). Leading questions experiment (part 1)
45 students shown 7 clips of car accidents. Split into groups and asked “how fast were the cars going when they hit/collided/bumped/smashed/contacted with?
Smashed led to highest ~41mph
Contact led to lowest ~32 mph
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
Interviewed 13 witnesses to an armed robbery in Canada. Interviews more than 4 months later inc 2 misleading questions. Provided accurate recall matching initial reports
Foster (1994)
Leading people to believe they were watching a real robbery and that their testimony could influence the trail led to greater accuracy in identification of the robber in a line up than assuming a simulation
What eyewitnesses are more effected by leading questions when?
> witnesses believes questioner knows more than them
witness does not realise they may be mislead
leading info is peripheral, not central
leading info is not blatantly incorrect
Loftus 1979 Anxiety experiment
Independent groups design
> group 1- saw a man come out a room with pen and grease on hands
> group 2- saw a man come out with knife and covered in blood
Asked to identify man from 50 photos
Grp 1- 49% accuracy grp 2- 33% accuracy
Conclusion- when anxious or aroused witnesses focus on the weapon at the expense of other details.
Deffenbacher et al 2004
Meta analysis of 18 studies published between 1974-77 looking at heightened anxiety on accuracy
Considerable Support that stress negatively impacts accuracy
> memory is most effective at moderate arousal, too low or high an arousal causes recall to be poor (Yerkes-Dodson Law)
Evaluate real life studies (EWT)
Real life studies retain the complexity of actual events
Ethnically right as people are not put through a staged event
Ethical problems of bringing event back up
Sacrifice control- identifying cause and effect is difficult
Loftus et al 1978
Showed pps events leading up to a car crash. Pps were shown pairs of slide in a random order and pick the slide from each pair that had been in the original set.
Explain EWT from children information
> amount of info increase with age- inferior encoding, storage and retrieval and lack of schemas.
digit span 4-5 yrs=4 digits, 9-10yrs=6 digits/ older children can say words faster which can account for greater capacity
Valentine and Coxon 1997
3 groups (children, young adults and old)
Watched video on kidnapping and asked leading questions
Children and elderly gave more incorrect answers to non leading questions and children were more misled
Goodman and Reed 1986
3 groups (3,6,22) spent 5 mins being interviewed in the company of a male stranger. 4-5 days later given a questionnaire with leading and non leading questions about event and asked to identify man in a line up 3 yr olds had the poorest recall, resistance to suggestion amount and accuracy of free recall all increased with age
Ceci and Bruck summarised the main affects on EWT were:
> interviewer bias > repeated questions > stereotypes > encouragement to visualise > peer pressure > authority figures ( need to please?)
Alastasi and Rhodes 2006
3 groups (18-25,35-45,55-78) asked to rate 24 photos on attractiveness. Given a short tasks and asked to pick out the 24 from 48 cards Young and middle groups better but old better in identifying people their own age
what is memory
the ability of the mind to retain
- learned information,
- knowledge of past events and experiences
- to retrieve that information and knowledge
What are mnemonics
Internal memory strategies
Outline a study that states organising material makes it easier to remember
Jenkins and Russell studied recall on word lists. They found highly associated words were grouped together
What is the method of Loki
Remembering items by associating them to locations in a well known place
What is the peg word technique
Using words already stored in our memory, the peg words, and a number that rhymes eg two and shoe and then linking each item to the peg word.
Acrostics
Using the first letter of each word to create a new scentance
Acronyms
Using the first letter of each word to create a word
Elaborative rehearsal
Deeper processing can be more useful than the amount of time spent rehearsing
Do the memory improvement techniques work
YES- proved links.
NO- effectiveness depends on organisation, is deeper understanding required,
Name as many strategies of memory improvement as you can
Peg words Acronyms Acrostics Mind maps Poems Loki Chunking
What are the 4 stages of the cognitive interview
> report - every detail
recreate - mentally recreate
recall- different order
perspective - some one else’s point of view
Who was the cognitive interview made by
Fisher and geiselman
Fisher et al 1989
Trained group of detectives in Florida. Assessed performance on real witnesses
Improved 47%
Wright and holiday 2007
Wright and Holliday conducted a study in 2007 that investigated how age affects recall of information. They found that the older the participant, the less complete and accuracy of recall was.
However, the study showed that when the cognitive interview technique was used, the older participants remembered a lot more information with more detail and that they gave no incorrect information.
In conclusion, this study proves that the cognitive interview technique does increase the accuracy of recall as it provides significantly more information and reduces the amount of false information given. This means that the cognitive interview technique can be used to gain more accurate information and help to reduce miscarriages of justice.
Kohnken et al
Meta analysis
On average increase of 34% on correct and incorrect info
Geiselman 1988
89 students Video of crime Interviewed by law enforcement Correct-SI 29 CI 42 Incorrect - SI 6 CI 7 Confabulated- SI 0.4 CI 0.7
Brewer and Tyrens (1981)
30 participants individually asked to wait in an office for 35 secs. room contained 61 objects, some typical to an office, some not (eg skull)
participants asked to recall, better for office typical objects, poor recall for mundane items but better for obscure, most common errors were false memories of typical office items that were not present.
