Cognitive Psychology Flashcards
Cognitive Psychology Definition
Its the study of how people perceive , learn , remember and think about information - Sternberg and Sternberg , 2012
Cognitive psychology is the psychology of mental processes - Groom , 2014
Factors Under Cognitive Psychology
Perception , Human Intelligence , Language , Thinking and Problem Solving , Memory and Attention
Four Approaches to Cognitive Psychology
Experimental Cognitive Psychology , Computational Cognitive Science , Cognitive Neuropsychology , Cognitive Neuroscience
Experimental Cognitive Psychology
This involves doing experiments under laboratory conditions , trying to get a handle on a specific brain process that has been theorized .
Cognitive Psychology
One way of investigating cognition is to study people who have suffered brain damage . Are there any specific cognitive impairments brought about by damage to a particular brain region , then its likely that the damaged area is involved in that cognitive function .
Computational Cognitive Science
This involves creating computer based models of human cognitive functions , as well as other work from artificial Intelligence .
Cognitive Neuroscience
Involves using brain - imaging devices to study cognitive functions . This allows to discover where these processes occur in the brain .
Human Memory
Not a single organ .
Not just in one part of the brain .
Super Complex , integrated systems .
Not just one memory , but heaps of memory systems .
It receives , processes and stores information .
Memory as a Computer
Active Process
Receives , organizes , stores and recovers information .
Similar processing to that of a computer .
Does not passively receive information , important information is saved while non important information isn’t saved .
Information is stored is a logical way , so it easy to retrieve later .
Both deal with information in a similar way ; encoding , storage and retrieval .
Formation of Memory
Encoding - Formation of Memory Code .
Storage - Maintaining encoded information in memory over time .
Retrieval - Recover information from memory stores
Three Common Operations of Memory
In encoding , we transform sensory data into a form of mental representation .
In storage , encoded information is kept in memory .
In retrieval , we use the information stored in memory
Sensory Memory
Preserves Information in its original sensory form for a very short period of time , usually less that a second .
Iconic Memory - Memory of information from our visual system .
Echoic Memory - Memory of auditory information coming from ears .
SM lasts for a very short period of time , and info doesn’t pass to STM .
Short Term Memory
STM is a limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds . To extend this duration we use a process called rehearsal in which we repetitively verbalize or think about the specific Information . Generally our memory capacity for most items is close to 7 , and this discovery was made George Miller .
Long Term Memory
Unlimited capacity store , which has the ability to hold information up to a lifetime .
Retrieval
Refers to getting information out of storage .
STM is stored and retrieved sequentially .
LTM is stored and retrieved by association .
Organizing information can help retrieval .
Three stages of Memory
Memory is viewed as information which comes from our environment through the 5 senses , Its briefly stored in Sensory Memory .
If the information is attended to , it flows into STM , which has a duration of up to 20 seconds .
If rehearsed it’s encoded in LTM which has an unlimited duration .
Information can be retrieved from LTM and bought to STM and Information can be recalled from STM and bought into the conscious mind .
Atkinson and Shiffrin focused on two types of encoding ; Acoustic and Semantic .
LTM works best with semantic , STM works best with acoustic .
Applying the Multi Store Model
Eyewitness ; they are the people who see the event first hand , however they aren’t good at reporting the things they saw .
Many people end up in jail because of misinformation . If not properly rehearsed then the information may not reach the LTM . In the case of a traumatic event eye witnesses may not be able to or might not want to speak about what they witnesses .
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
Multiple copies of a memory are hand in LTM .
People cant remember the exact answer , however can recall a word with similar meaning / sound .
Memory is stored as multiple copies , in various forms .
Clive Wearing and Henry Molaison
Clive received brain damage to his hippocampus after a infection , Clive could still use his STM to remember things for about 20 seconds , however he would after 20 seconds forget everything .
Henry Molaison also had a similar case , he had surgery to cure his severe epilepsy , however during the procedure his hippocampus was damaged causing Henry to be unable to make new memories , however Henry remembered his past memories which suggested he still possessed LTM , He later passed away in 2008
Working Memory Model
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed an alternative model for ofSTMwhich was called Working Memory.
This was done as Baddeley and Hitch argue that the MSM model is too simple .
There are multiple systems for different types of information .
Working memory consists of a CE which allocates memories to each subsystem . The phonological loop and the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad are the two subsystems / slave systems .
Central Executive
Is a theoretical concept which drives the whole system and allocates data to the correct subsystems . It deals with cognitive tasks and was used to be seen as a homunculus that plays a supervisor role over the 2 slave systems .
Was later developed into an attentional controller – focus , divide and switch attention .
Slave systems
The phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material , it consists of two parts ; Phonological Store and the Articulatory Central Process .
The phonological store is linked to speech perception . The Articulatory Central Process is linked to speech production .
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad stores and processes information in a spatial or visual form .
The VSS is used for navigation and can deal with visuo-special information by ; directly observing images or by retrieving visuo-spatial information through long-term memory .
The 3rd Slave System
The 3rd slave system is known as the Episodic Buffer and was created by Baddeley in 2000 after the model failed to explain certain results of various experiments .
The episodic buffer acts as a ‘backup’ store which communicates with both LTM and the other components of working memory.
LTM - Episodic and Semantic Memory By Endel Tulving (1972)
Explicit Memory: refers to intentional or conscious recollection of information .
Declarative Memory: Memory for factual information: faces, names, facts .
Under declarative memory there are 2 other types of memories . Semantic and Episodic .
Semantic Memory - General knowledge and facts about the world .
Episodic Memory - Chronological recollection of personal experiences of individuals lives .
Implicit Memory - Refers to memories people are not consciously aware of, but those that affect their subsequent performance and behavior .
Under Implicit Memory there are two other types of memories . Procedural and Sequence .
Procedural Memory - Memory for actions, skills, and operations .
Sequence Memory - Responsible for how we remember lists of things , where ordering matters .
Nature Of Memory
Memory for actions, skills, and operations . Memories are associated with other concepts without autobiographical association .
Episodic Memory represents a mental diary and stores information about experiences .
Time Referencing
Episodic Memory was dependent of time-referencing , Memories are linked to the time they occurred .
Semantic Memory isn’t dependent on time as factual information can be remembered without the time it was learned .
Spatial Referencing
Episodic Memory – input is continuous .
Events can be recalled in a temporal form of reference .
Semantic Memory - input isn’t continuous and rather in a more of a fragment way .
Due to this certain content can be learned in several points .
Retrieval
Episodic Memory depending on the original context is susceptible for transformation .
Semantic Memory does not depend on the context it was learned or experienced .
No cues necessary to aid the retrieval process.
Can be based on inferences, generalizations, rational and logical thought
Leaves the memory trace relatively unchanged .
The Association between Episodic and Semantic memory
Semantic memory can function independently , however Episodic Memory is unable to do so as it depends on the previously stored knowledge .
These two systems can overlap at certain times , but they’ll always be identified as two distinct stores .
Scientific Evidence
Studying brain damages and consequences
Ostergaard (1987) – a case study of a 10 year old boy with brain damage due to an anoxic episode .
Intelligence was intact
Both episodic and semantic memory was damaged yet he was still, able to make educational progress and store information in his semantic memory .
Case study of KC (1951-2014) – motor bike accident , damages to LTM .
Episodic memory was impaired- cannot recall or form new memories , however factual information was unharmed.
Weaknesses found in the model proposed by Tulving .
Case studies of HM and Clive Wearing .
Couldn’t retain or recall episodic memories yet they could remember how to perform tasks and could learn new skills .
Therefore this model lacks focus on practiced skills .
Reconstructive Memory
Constructive Nature of Memory ;
Prior experiences affect how we recall things from memory .
Reconstructive Memory ;
People use schemas to reconstruct memory .
A schema is a variation on the idea of elaborative rehearsal .
Introduction
Bartlett stated that studying different components of memory could be accurate , and to be studies in special ways to find the association between memory and other cognitive processes .
Bartlett conducted his experiments in various criteria ; Perception
Imaging
Remembering
Role of Perception
Perception is how we interpret things and therefore is highly subjective .
Imaging
All memories were first imaged , therefore Bartlett uses ink blots to investigate on what’s remembered .
How people interpret ink blots are related to their ;
Personal Interests
Experiences
Mood
“Effort after meaning” - to connect the image/stimulus with existing knowledge .
Stimulus can be assimilated /accommodated .
Remembering
Perception is the passive process behind memory .
It actively constructs the image we receive with existing knowledge .
According to Bartlett , Memory and Remembering is constructive in nature .
Reconstructive Memory
Memory is constructive in nature , it uses previous knowledge and experiences .
Role of perception .
Imagined information to make the memory coherent / fill the gaps .
Reconstructive Process can lead to big errors where people may recall events that never occurred .
The original memory isn’t destroyed , but at times people are unable to recall what actually happened vs what they imagined to happen .
These sort of memories are created for self defense reasons and often includes altering the story to make your point more clear .
These distortions in memory can become involved in criminal cases , where an innocent person can be on the mercy of an eyewitness who may not be aware of the full details .
Schema Theory
This is a branch of cognitive science concerned with the how the brain structures knowledge .
A schema is an organized unit of knowledge for a subject/event .
Its based on past experiences and is accessed to guide current understanding or action , therefore it can be either stored knowledge or mental representation of a particular event .
This has both fixed and variable information and is helpful in recognizing unfamiliar stimulus , however we cant remember everything we perceive .
Evaluation
Use of experiments that are far fetched from everyday life .
The methodology scenes deliberately devised to support Bartlett’s theory .
The confusion of actual point of reconstruction and schema influences point of remembering or point of learning .
Labelling memory as inaccurate/flawed ;
Reliability of eye witness .
Individual Differences
Memory which has been in the favor of the researchers , has grown into a much advanced and a complicated cognitive function . Even though processes of memory are being discussed in much general terms , the individual differences cannot be overlooked .
The speed at which the memories are processed can be highly subjective and especially age related , as cognitive capacities improve gradually with age and experiences .
On the other hand , the psychological state one is in , the present mood and emotions can also affect the processing of memory .
The schemas get accommodated and detailed over the years , and specially with experiences , therefore the impact of experiences and schemas with perception , effect the processing of memories .
Autobiographical Memory
This is a significant component of the LTM as it is “the memory of an individuals history” .
It is constructive and personal , as per the researches serve , people do not remember exactly what happened , but rather there own interpretations of it . Therefore the distortions in autobiographical memory is inevitable .
Diaries and personal journals are helpful in studying autobiographical memory .
The studies show that the type of autobiographical memories one will recall are connected to our self esteem . And that those who have positive self esteem are more likely to recall positive events and vice versa .
Researches’
Daniella Palombi carried out a large scale investigation with 598 volunteers called of autobiographical memory (SAM) . They used a questionnaire with 102 5-point Likert scale questions to examine autobiographical memory in 4 domains as episodic memory , semantic memory , spatial memory and prospective memory .
They discovered that people who were low in episodic memory were also low in semantic memory , and thus either people will be low or high in their overall memory . It was also noted that men had scored higher for spatial ability and that shows that men comparatively have higher capacity to process spatial information .
Moreover it was also observed that there is a link between depression and memory , both semantic and episodic . Hence its clear that the psychological state and moods can impact the processing of memories .
