Cognitive-affective bases of behavior Flashcards
_____________ deals with the observation that two individuals confronted with the same
stimulus presentation may come to different conclusions, that is, they may not
agree as to whether a simple stimulus was present. Disagreement may occur due
to differences in discriminability or response bias
Signal detection theory
process interpreting physical sensations
___________ of the stimulus is described by the mathematical function of separation/
spread, with separation representing signal strength and spread representing the
background noise present during the stimulus presentation.
Discriminability
d′
Response bias is a function of where the criterion for stimulus detection is set. The criterion can be set low to avoid _________ at a more
liberal threshold, or the criterion can be set high to avoid ____________ at a more
conservative threshold
False negatives; false positives
_____________ is the branch of psychology that deals with the detection and interpretation
of sensory stimuli.
Perception
__________ means that a perceived stimulus will undergo successive elaboration. For a
visual stimulus this means edge and orientation processing at early stages, the detection of features such as corners or curves or shapes at middle stages, and the identification of an object from a memory store at a later stage.
Hierarchical Processing
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ means that there is a separate central nervous system unit for processing each visual feature (i.e., shape, color, and motion). Integration occurs by the simultaneous activity of processing units gaining access to each other’s contents (parallel and distributed processing).
Functional Segregation
_______________ defined as the cognitive process by which a unified internal representation of a
stimulus is formed from the activity of multiple mental modules. FB requires greater attentional resources than single feature processing, is
more likely to rely on the activity of the frontal and parietal cortex, and is supported
by cholinergic activity.
Feature Binding
____________ (Bayesian
approaches) has been used to understand sensory/perceptual processes (Brainard,
2009; Simoncelli, 2009). By applying optimal estimation theory (also known as
statistical decision theory) to a simple example, such as color recognition, we can
outline its basic principles and extrapolate to a more complex process such as
objection recognition.
optimal estimation theory
more recent than signal detection theory
Given several possible interpretations of a visual scene, the visual system selects the most probable interpretation a priori (Brainard et al., 2006),
or, put another way, the actual image data are combined with prior assumptions
(Brainard, 2009).
this is what is meant by Bayesian approaches, such as how we know the color of an object doesn’t change even though the lighting / environment may change.
Cocktail party effect
The term attention can
also mean a process occurring during alert states by which a stimulus can either
be attended to or ignored. (Selective attention).
___________ is a neuropsychological test often used to assess attention. Formulated by Michael Posner,[1] the task assesses an individual’s ability to perform an attentional shift. It has been used and modified to assess disorders, focal brain injury, and the effects of both on spatial attention.
The Posner cueing task, also known as the Posner paradigm
In the classic demonstration of a______________________, individuals who are actively tracking an aspect of a sports event fail to notice a person in a gorilla suit walking
directly through the game—clearly, attention cannot be directed everywhere.
Attentional blindness
when attentional resources are taxed through
increased processing load, or by dividing them between two tasks, performance
______ are observed; however, those resources can be increased through
practice (Treisman, 2009).
decrements
______ the more similar tasks are, the more they
compete
for limited attentional resources. Similar tasks tend to share the same
sensory/
perceptual modality.
Structural Interference
___________________there is a general limit to the extent of attentional resources.
Evidence for this limit can be found even when attention is divided between
two noninterfering (i.e., different modalities) tasks and performance decrements
occur. These decrements are less than those occurring with high structural interference,
but they are still meaningful enough to indicate a drain on a general
attentional resource that is occurring.
General Interference
______—the unity of our actions places limits on attentional
resources in preparing responses.
Behavioral coherence
_________ is an example of
attention to objects (i.e., word identity) taking precedence over attention to attributes
(i.e., the color of ink the word is printed in)
The Stroop Effect (Stroop, 1935)
________ helps to explain the push–pull relationship of the facilitative and inhibitory
mechanisms at work (Pinsk, Doninger, & Kastner, 2004). The theory posits the
degree to which an ignored stimulus is processed depends on the extent of processing
required by the attended stimulus. According to ____________, reduction of interference caused by distractors is greatest when the processing
demands to the attended stimulus are highest.
Attentional load theory (Lavie &
Tsal, 1994)
Attention can be “captured” in a stimulus-driven fashion, referred to as _______
mechanisms or reflexive attention, or in a strategic fashion, referred to as _______
mechanisms (Treisman, 2009).
bottom-up (odor of smoke, name said across a room); Gestalt
principles of perceptual organization (i.e., similarity, proximity, and common fate)
are part of bottom-up attentional influences (Kastner et al., 2009)
top-down (Anne Treisman’s conjunction search paradigm (Treisman & Gelade,
1980); find the O in red ink); lateral parietal and frontal
lobes; Top-down attentional
control helps to resolve competition between stimuli by introducing bias toward one stimulus over another.
Latent variable analysis suggests that _______ is a critical component of EFs, as there is a near perfect correlation of WM and non-WM executive
functioning tasks, leading some experts to refer to a unitary underlying construct
of executive attention
Working memory
“_____” EFs are thought to involve cognitive functions, whereas “___” EFs involve social and affective processing.
Cold; Hot; EFs are the only neuropsych tested constructs that relate to personality. (e.g., frontal lobe injury, HM).
Wisconsin Card Sort Test (set establishment and maintenance), the Stroop Color Word Test (attentional control), and the Controlled Oral Word Association Test
(verbal fluency).
______ viewed intelligence tests as probing the limited range of linguistic, logical, mathematical,
and spatial abilities, and so expanded to a theory of multiple intelligences to incorporate musical, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal and
intrapersonal abilities
Gardner
(compared to Stanford-Binet, Weschler, etc).
(Weschler: Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment”)
_________ theory, from the bottom up are: (1) regulation of cortical
arousal and attention; (2) receiving, processing, and retention of information; and
(3) programming, regulation, and verification of behavior.
Luria’s (1980) theory of intelligence.
________ theorized that each mental ability represented by a mental test
was influenced by a general factor and a specific factor, which he designated as
lower case g and s
Spearman (same guy as ranked correlation -1 - +1).
Cattell (1941) proposed that g was actually composed of _______ (Gf) and _______ (Gc) ability.
Gf was described as a facility for reasoning and adapting to new situations.
Gc was described as accessible stores of knowledge.
General Fluid (decreases with age); General Crystallized (stays same with age; increases with age, correlates with SES / education).
The _________ model is often referred
to as Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory, and most, but not all, contemporary
intelligence tests are based on it (Schneider & McGrew, 2012).
three-stratum model
_________ refers to the value of an assessment in selecting and implementing interventions and treatments that will benefit the
examinee.
Treatment validity
African Americans differ from Caucasians by about ____ standard deviation, with Caucasians obtaining the higher scores, a finding that has
been relatively consistent across time and assessment methods but is a difference
that diminishes to a ____ standard deviation when socioeconomic status is accounted for (Reynolds & Ramsay, 2003).
1; 0.5
Sternberg (2003) has demonstrated in __________ that measures of practical and creative
ability contribute significantly to predicting first-year undergraduate grade
point average (GPA) above and beyond Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) scores.
Relative to ethnic differences in SAT and GPA, the ________ practical and
creative ability measures reduced ethnic difference gaps, particularly for Hispanic
Americans.
Project Rainbow
The dominant learning theory of the early 20th century was based on the work of ________ (1898), in the United States, and independently, _______ (1927),
in Russia. Their findings were known as related forms of conditioning and became
the cornerstone of behaviorism.
Thorndike and Pavlov
Classical / Pavlovian conditioning
US: meat powder; UR: drooling
CS: metronome; CR: drooling to metronome
Goal: I want to get the dog to drool when they hear the metronome, something the dog doesn’t usually drool to.
CS/US > UR until conditioning has occurred, when the UR takes place as soon
as the CS appears and the US is not needed any more, and the paradigm becomes
simply CS > CR
Little Albert
Watson conditioned him to be scared of white rabbits in few trials. The fear generalized (stimulus generalization) to other white objects. Things like anxieties can develop from generalizing responses to stimuli.
Operant Conditioning
Thorndike noticed the principles of operant conditioning by noticing bxs were repeated only if they were rewarded.
CS > CR/US > UR. The paradigm is read as: a stimulus that precedes a
behavior that leads to a “satisfying state of affairs” will tend to be repeated
If the reinforcer follows every instance of the CS, it is called ___________, or CRF. CRF is the fastest way to learn, but, because it requires
so many reinforcers, it is not efficient.
continuous reinforcement
If the schedule does not vary in proportion, say, consistently every fifth press is
rewarded, it is called _________
Fixed Ratio
If the presses that are rewarded are randomly spaced, it is _________.
Variable Ratio;
Both ratio
schedules produce high rates of output. That is, they follow the rule that the more
the work, the more the reward, or to maximize rewards, one maximizes output.
_____________ means
that the first press after a set interval is rewarded.
Fixed Interval;
An FI schedule leads to
intermittent behavior that, when graphed, looks scalloped because responses right
after the reward are never rewarded, and as a result, responses stop for a time.
After a while, the responses start again slowly, reaching a high rate just before the
end of the interval. Responses are never rewarded at the beginning of an interval,
but are always rewarded at the end, so responses stop at the beginning, and
become rapid at the end. Responses stop again for a bit, and the cycle continues.
Work on term papers nicely illustrates this schedule
Intervals between reinforcements can be of
unpredictable length. This is called ____________, and a very steady response
rate is produced, but of only medium speed. Again, this rate maximizes reinforcement,
while minimizing work.
Variable Ratio
Ebbinghaus (1885), the
method with himself as subject involved memorizing nonsense syllables to see
where the errors occurred. One approach presented a list in order over and over
until there were no mistakes. It was called the ____________________ because after
each syllable Ebbinghaus would try to anticipate the next syllable.
anticipation method
______ and _______
effects referred to the first and last syllables being the easiest to remember,
respectively.
primacy; recency
These and other studies showed that the concept of reinforcement had to be expanded to
include cognitive and social reinforcements. Similarly, a number of human behaviors,
such as solving puzzles; observing art; and expressing emotion in art, dance,
or music, also call for expanded reinforcement concepts.
Examples include Harlow’s monkeys (pressing levers more or less to see certain stimuli), Tolman with rats in maze with no food reward vs. food reward at end.
Rather than learning rote responses,
human subjects may be learning the relationship between the two stimuli, resulting
in wide flexibility rather than rigid reflexes.
Rescorla, reinterpretting Pavlov’s work.
_______ involves learning through observation of the consequences of actions for other people. When a learner observes someone they identify with and the role model receives reinforcement, the learner is motivated to imitate the behaviour as if they had been reinforced themselves.
Vicarious reinforcement
The “modal model”
of information processing originated with Waugh and Norman (1965) and was
expanded by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). It was composed of three levels:
sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
