Cognition Flashcards
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of info
recall
a measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that lessens the amount of time saved when learning material again, as on a final exam or engaging in a language used in early childhood
encoding
process of getting memory into our brain, by extracting meaning
storage
process of retaining encoded info over time
retrieval
process of getting info out of storage
parallel processing
processing many aspects of a problem simutaneously
sensory memory
immediate, very brief recording of sensory info
short-term memory
activated memory that briefly holds a few items, such as digits of a cell phone number, before it is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory. includes knowledge and skills
working memory
short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming info, and info retrieved from long-term memory
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of info such as word meanings, time, and space
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations
iconic memory
a momentary memory of visual stimuli, lasts no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary memory of audio stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds can still be recalled with 3-4 seconds
chunking
organizing items into units
mnemonics
memory aids; techniques that use imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study to yield better long-term retention instead of massed study
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of two conscious memory systems
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
flashbulb memory
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant event
long-term potentiation
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory
priming
the activation of particular associations in memory
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in heling us recall it
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one’s current mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items on a list
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
inability to retrieve memories from the past
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
repression
the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts and memories
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned
deja vu
the eerie sense that you have experienced something before
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, and communicating
concept
a mental grouping of similar ideas
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
creativity
the ability to produce new ideas
convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the best solution
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible solutions
intrinsic motivation
being driven by interest
expertise
well-developed knowledge
algorithm
step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; speedier, but more error-prone than an algorithm
insight
a sudden realization of a solution
confirmation bias
tendency to search for information that supports our beliefs
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective
mental set
tendency to approach a problem in one particular way
intuition
automatic feeling or thought
representativeness heuristc
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to match particular stereotypes
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs
framing
the way an issue is posed
language
the way we communicate with others
phoneme
the smallest distinctive sound unit
morpheme
the smallest unit that carries meaning
grammar
the system of rules that enables us to communicate and understand with each other
babbling stage
beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech development in which a baby utters various sounds
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks in single words
two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in development during which a child speaks in 2 words
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks in nouns and verbs; “go car”
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to broca’s areas (speaking) or wernicke’s area (understanding)
linguistic determinism
the strong form of Whorf’s hypothesis, that language controls the way we think and interpret the world
linguistic influence
the idea that language affects thought
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill
grit
passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long term goals
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
analytical intelligence
the ability to determine a single right answer to a well defined problems
creative intelligence
the ability to adapt to new situations
practical intelligence
required for everyday tasks and may have multiple solutions
intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
general intelligence
according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on a intelligence test
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test
intelligence test
a method for assessing a person’s mental aptitudes and comparing them
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person’s future performance
mental age
the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain age
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision of Binet’s og intelligence test
IQ
the ratio of mental age to chronological age
WAIS
most widely used intelligence tests that contain verbal and performance subtests
standardrization
defining uniform testing features procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
normal curve
the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the tests, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
validity
the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to do
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior
cohort
a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period
crystalized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age
cross-sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or below and difficultly adapting to the demands of life
down syndrome
a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. may vary depending on the range of populations and environments studied
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
