Cloning and Biotechnology Flashcards
Clones Definition
GENETICALLY identical copies
what is vegetative propagation
production of plant clones from non reproductive cells
what are rhizomes
stem structures that grow horizontally UNDERGROUND away from the parent plant e.g bamboo
what are runners
stem structures that grow horizontally ABOVE GROUND e.g strawberries
what are tubers
large underground plant structures that act as a food store for the plant e.g potatoes
what are bulbs
underground food stores where bulbs can develop from the og plant to form new individual plants e.g onions
How to take plant cuttings as an example of a simple cloning technique
From Stem: using a scalpel take a cutting 5-10cm from end of a stem of a parent plant, remove leaves at lower end of the cutting leaving one at the tip, dip the lower end into rooting powder with growth hormones, place this cutting in a pot with suitable growth medium, provide warmth using a propagator
what is tissue culture
growing new tissues/organs/plants from certain tissues cut from parent plants
what is micropropagation
growing large numbers of plants from meristem tissues from parent plant (mass tissue culture baso)
process of tissue culture/ micropropagation
cut a developing stem/ root (explant) as they have stem cells. sterilise this explant to kill any microorganisms. place CELLS in a culture containing growth hormones , glucose amino acids. cells will divide to form a small plant, move to soil. plants are identical to parents
when is micropropagation used
- Desirable plant doesn’t produce many seeds
- rare plants
- GM plants
- doesn’t respond well to natural cloning
Advantages of micropropagation
- infertile plants can be grown
- plants can be grown in any season
- desirable characteristics always passed on
- quicker growth than seeds
Disadvantages of micropropagation
- unfavourable characteristics always passed on
- susceptible to disease due to lack of genetic variation
- high production cost- skilled workers + energy
- contamination can be disastrous
natural clones in invertebrates:
starfish regenerating fragments
natural clones in vertebrates
MZ twins
Process of artificial embryo twinning
egg is extracted from female animal and fertilised in a Petri dish- fertilised egg left to divide Into an embryo, cells from this are then put into a separate Petri dish and left to divide into an embryo, these embryos are implanted into more female animals which act as surrogates, embryos develop and OFFSPRING ARE GENETICALLY IDENTICAL TO EACH-OTHER.
process of somatic cell nuclear transfer
Somatic cell extracted from target animal, the nucleus is extracted and kept. from another animal an egg cell is taken and enucleated (nucleus removed). the nucleus from animal 1 is inserted into animal 2s egg cell and fused and stimulated to divide using electrofusion. this forms an embryo- implanted into surrogate mother, offspring is identical to animal 1
arguments for artificial cloning in animals
- desirable characteristics always passed on
- infertile animals can reproduce
- breeding season doesn’t matter
- save endangered species
arguments against artificial cloning in animals
- ethics, embryos destroyed in process
- undesirable characteristics always passed on
- no genetic variation
- difficult to do and time consuming
- cloned offspring don’t live as long as natural ones
what is biotechnology
industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs, other products
what living organisms are used in biotech and why
fungi+ bacteria
- ideal growth conditions- easy to grow
- short life cycle- grow rapidly, products can be made quickly
- grown using inexpensive materials
- grown any time of the year
process- brewing beer
yeast (bacteria) added to grain+ other ingredients, yeast respires anaerobically using glucose from grain producing ethanol (fermentation)
process- cheese making
cheese production relies on rennet- contains enzyme chymosin- usually extracted from calves stomachs- can now be made using GM bacteria
process- yoghurt making
lactic acid bacteria clots milk- thickens it
process- penicillin production
fungi in stress in industrial fermenter produce antibiotic penicillin
process- insulin production
GM bacteria which have gene for human insulin production grown in industrial fermenter
process- bioremediation
removes pollutants from contaminated sites eg. cleaning oil spills
advantages of using microorganisms for food for human consumption
- organisms used to make single cell protein can be grown using waste products- way of getting rid of waste products
- microorganisms can be grown quickly, easily, cheaply- production costs are low, grown using waste, less land needed than livestock
- can be cultured anywhere- just needs right equipment- food source readily provided- tackle malnutrition
- healthy alternative to human protein
disadvantages of using microorganisms for food for human consumption
- care must be taken when culturing to avoid contamination
- people may not like idea of eating food grown using waste products
- single celled protein doesn’t have same taste as normal meat
batch fermentation
microorganisms grown in batches in a fermentation vessel- when grown its removed and a diff batch is made- closed culture
continuous fermentation
micro-organisms continually grown in a fermentation vessel- non stop. nutrients put in and removed at constant rate
conditions and how they maximise yield: pH
constantly monitored with ph probe- kept at optimum for enzymes
conditions and how they maximise yield: Temperature
kept constant by water jacket that surrounds the vessel- kept optimum for enzymes
conditions and how they maximise yield: Access to nutrients
paddles constantly circulate fresh nutrient medium, ensures access to all microorganisms
conditions and how they maximise yield: Volume of o2
sterile air pumped into vessel when needed- for respiration
conditions and how they maximise yield: vessel kept sterile
superheated steam sterilises vessel after every use- kills any unwanted organisms
name and state what happens in the 4 sections of the standard growth curve of microorganisms in closed cultures
1) Lag phase- growth is slow microorganisms are getting adjusted to their new environment
2) Log phase- exponential growth- growth is fastest here- microorganisms have adapted and have plenty of space and nutrients
3) Stationary phase- Rate of death of microorganisms = rate of reproduction
4) Death phase- more death than reproduction
equation for individuals in a population at log phase
N=N0 x 2^n
N0- initial number of cells
n- number of divisions
N-individuals in a population at log phase
Immobilised enzymes
enzymes attached to insoluble material so they can’t be mixed with the products
3 methods to immobilise enzymes
1- encapsulate in alginate beads (acts as a semi permeable membrane
2-Trap them in a silica gel matrix
3-covalently bond to collagen/ cellulose fibres
in industry how are immobilised enzymes used
a substrate solution is run thru a column of immobilised enzymes- active sites still available, the solution flowing out of the column will only contain the desired product.
advantages of using immobilised enzymes in the industry
- columns can be washed and reused- enzymes don’t need to keep being bought
- products + enzymes are separate- no time/ money wasted separating
- less likely to denature than free enzymes
disadvantages of using immobilised enzymes in the industry
- extra equipment required- expensive
- more expensive to buy than free enzymes
- rate of enzyme activity can be low due to the substrate not being able to mix with the substrate fully
process of conversion of lactose using immobilised enzymes
fresh milk passed over immobilised lactase which breaks down lactose into glucose + galactose to produce lactose free milk
process of the production of semi synthetic penicillins using immobilised enzymes
same antibiotic properties as natural penicillin but are effective against penicillin resistant bacteria. enzyme immobilised penicillin acylase used
process of conversion of dextrins to glucose using immobilised enzymes
glucose and fructose syrup used in food industry, glucose can be derived from starchy foods using immobilised enzymes. starch to dextrins to glucose by glucoamylase
process of conversion of glucose to fructose using immobilised enzymes
immobilised glucose isomerase converts glucose to fructose
process of production of pure samples of L amino acids using immobilised enzymes
amino acids L/D, L is the useful one, aminocyclase separates them. (used for dietary supplements)
