CLOA Content

Question 1

What is a schema?

Answer 1

A mental representation of knowledge stored in the brain. A network of knowledge, beliefs and expectations about particular aspects of the world.

Question 2

What is reconstructive memory?

Answer 2

Developed by Bartlett (1932).
We tend to see, interpret and recall what we see according to what we expect to happen in a normal situation.
Bartlett referred to these mental pictures of how things are expected to be as schemas-determined by social values and prejudices.
capable of distorting unfamiliar or unconsciously ‘unacceptable’ information in order to ‘fit in’ with our existing knowledge or schemas.

Question 3

Strengths of Schema Theory

Answer 3

Strengths
• Efficient-don’t have to remember every detail of something to have a good idea about what to expect.
->remember more things but in less detail.
• Can think quicker and more efficiently.
• Understand how people organise and categorise information.
• Explains reconstructive memory-real world application.
• Can predict events and behave accordingly.
• Research to support it.
• explains how new information is categorised according to existing knowledge.

Question 4

Limitations of Schema Theory

Answer 4

Limitations
• Concept is too vague and it is not clear how they are acquired in the first place (Cohen 1993).
• Lacks explanation
• It is not clear exactly
• how schemas are initially acquired
• how they influence cognitive processes
• how people choose between relevant schemas when categorising people
• does not account for completely new information that cannot link with existing knowledge.

Question 5

Describe the MSM

-Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

Answer 5

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
The Multi-Store Model of Memory-Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968
• The model suggest that our memory involves three stores, the short term sensory stores, the short term memory store and the long term memory store.
• The short term sensory store hold relatively unprocessed information for a fraction of a second after the stimuli has gone, it filters out any unnecessary information and allows us to focus.
• The short term memory store has a limited capacity and holds information for brief periods of time.
• The long term memory store holds lots of information for long periods of time.
• They suggest that information flows through the model and can be lost at any stage.

Key assumption: our memory is separated into different stores.

Question 6

Strengths of MSM

Answer 6

Strengths
• Supported by lots of research.
• Many studies provide evidence to support the distinction between STM and LTM.
• The model can account for primacy and recency effects.
• Provides basic layout to how memory is structured.
• Very influential and has generated a lot of research into memory.

Question 7

Limitations of MSM

Answer 7

Limitations
• To simplistic- in particular as it suggests that both STM and LTM each operate in a single, uniform fashion. More research has been done into the LTM to challenge the version of a single LTM store and it is now thought that the LTM is made up of several stores.
• Doesn’t account for how interaction between the different stores takes place.

Question 8

Describe the WMM

-Baddeley and Hitch 1974

Answer 8

The Working Memory Model- Baddeley and Hitch in 1974
• questioned the existence of a single stm store and saw the stm as an active store that holds information whilst it is being worked on.
• The model suggests that working memory is controlled by a central executive which decides what you are going to pay attention to.
• It also suggests that there are two processing systems within the stm, the phonological loop which holds linguistic information and the visuo-spatial sketchpad which deals with visual and spatial information.
• The model suggests that it is easier to do two tasks that use two different processing systems that two tasks that use the same.

Question 9

Strengths of WMM

Answer 9

Strengths
• Research support.
• Physiological evidence as PET scans show that different parts of the brain are used when performing visual tasks and verbal tasks.
• Replaced idea of a unitary STM as suggested by MSM.

Question 10

Limitations of WMM

Answer 10

Limitations
• only the stm is explained so it can’t really be an understandable model of memory.
• The function of the central executive is also unclear, it is unclear on how it works and what it does and its capacity has never been measured, therefore it cannot be used to explain a majority of experimental results.
• doesn’t explain the changes is processing ability due to practice or time.

Question 11

Define memory

Answer 11

the process whereby information is encoded, store and then retrieved when needed.

Question 12

Describe the Hippocampus

Answer 12

A structure located in the middle brain most closely aligned to memory formation. It is important as an early storage place for LTM and its involved in the transition of long-term memory to even more enduring permanent memory. The hippocampus also plays an important role in spatial navigation.

Question 13

What are MRI Scans?

Answer 13

Produce 3 dimensional images of brain structures. The body consists largely of water and when it is exposed to the electromagnetic fields from the MRI scanner, the string magnetic field causes the protons in the water to change their alignment. The signal from the scanner can be transformed into a visual representation of the part of the body being studied.

Question 14

Strengths of MRIs

Answer 14

• Good to show how blood flows to the brain and can be used to identify problems with blood circulation
• Useful for diagnosing brain disease or damage that causes problems with cognitive functioning
• No radioactive material is used

Question 15

Limitations of MRIs

Answer 15

• Expensive
• Any slight movement may affect the quality of the picture
• Can not say anything about cause-affect relationships
• Noisy= may affect ecological validity

Question 16

Define emotion

Answer 16

a complex state of feeling in response to a particular situation that results in physical and psychological changes that influence thought and behaviour.

Question 17

What are Ekman’s (1972) 6 primary emotions

Answer 17

1. Anger
2. Happiness
3. Surprise
4. Disgust
5. Sadness
6. Fear
   These emotions are thought to be universal as they are expressed facially and and recognized the same way throughout diverse cultures.
   It is suggested that emotions such as fear, joy or anger are more than simply physiological state and some theorists argue that an additional factor is required to transform ambiguous physiological states in specific emotions, it has been suggested that this additional factor is cognition.

Question 18

Describe Two Factor Theory of Emotion (Schachter and Singer 1962)

Answer 18

Suggests that two factors interact to determine specific emotions, physiological arousal and an emotional interpretation and labelling of the physiological arousal.
According to this theory, experiencing distinct emotions in specific settings need the interaction between physiological arousal and an interpretation of what has caused the arousal in that setting. While the strength of the physiological arousal determines the intensity of the emotional experience, it is the interpretation that determines which emotion is experienced.

Question 19

Appraisal Theory (Lazarus 1982)

Answer 19

Based on the notion of appraisal, refers to the evaluation of situations according to the significance they have for us, therefore it is more cognitive than biological. It suggests that we experience emotions when, in our interaction with our environment, we appraise events as beneficial or harmful to our wellbeing.
The appraisal theory is based on two concepts:
Primary appraisal – relates to deciding if a situation is personally relevant. (Motivational relevance Motivational congruence Accountability)
Secondary appraisal – this leads to an individual experiencing more specific emotions, and it provides information about the individuals coping options in a situation. (Problem-focused coping, Emotion-focused coping, Future expectancy)
Lazarus uses the term Core Relational Theme to refer to a summary of all appraisal judgments that define specific emotions. CRTs determine the personal meaning that result from particular patterns of appraisal about specific person-environmental relationships.
Positive emotions emerges if appraisal assesses potential benefit
Negative emotions emerges if appraisal assesses potential harm