CLOA Flashcards
Master
Validating Multi-Store Memory Model
In psychology, memory refers to the mental processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
Glanzer and Cunitz ( supports multi store memory model ) ( STM and LTM have separate memory mechanisms behind them )
Aim-Test The Validity of The Multi-Store Memory Model
Method-Repeated Measures Design
Procedure-The Sample Consisted of 240 Army Enlisted Men, Participants Were Asked to Memorize A List Of 15 Words, After Memorization, Free Recall Task Occurred, In Other Condition, Participants Followed The Same Procedure, But In Between The Memorization Task and The Recalling Task Was A 30 Second Buffer Task
Results- In Both Conditions The First and Last Words Were Recalled Most Frequently, In the Second Condition The Last Word Was Recalled Less Frequently Than In First Condition
Conclusion- The First and Last Words Were Most Often Recalled Due To Having Most Time To Rehearse It, Within The Second Condition, The Last Word Recalled Less Often Due To Lack of Rehearsal Time, Thus Supporting The Multi-Store Memory Model (STM->LTM Requires Rehearsal)
Validating Working-Memory Model
In psychology, memory refers to the mental processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
The Working Memory Model, proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974, describes short-term memory as a system with multiple components. It comprises the central executive, which controls attention and coordinates the phonological loop (handling auditory information), and the visuospatial sketchpad (processing visual and spatial information).
Aim- Test The Validity of The Working-Memory Model
Method-Experimental Design
Procedure-Participants Were Asked To Recall A List of Letters Which Were Either Phonologically Similar (B,D,C,G,P) or Phonologically Different (F,H,P,R,X)
Results- Phonologically Similar Letters Were Harder To Remember Because Its Trace Is Similar (If Acoustically Encoded), Phonologically Different Letters Were Easier To Remember Due To Distinct And Easier To Distinguish Traces
Conclusion- Humans Convert Visual Material Acoustically In The STM, Thus Finding It More Difficult To Store Phonologically Similar Things, Supports Working-Memory Model Claiming That Speech Material Uses A Sound Based Storage System Called The Phonological Store
Car Accidents (Verbs)
The theory of reconstructive memory states that recalling information is an active process that involves the reconstruction of information rather than the passive retrieval of information from our memory store. Reconstructive memory suggests that in the absence of all information, we fill in the gaps to make more sense of what happened.
Loftus et Palmer
Aim- Investigate Effect of Post-Event Information on Original Memory
Method- Sample Consisted of 45 Students Split Into 5 Groups, Each Group Showed Same 7 Films of Car Accidents (Just Different Orders), Then Answered A Questionnaire Asking About The Films, Most Questions In The Questionnaire Were Distracter Questions But There Was One Important Question Asking About The Speed of The Car In The Film, The Way The Question Was Phrased Was Different Among The 5 Groups, Specifically In Its Use of Different Verbs In Describing How The Cars (Hit, Collided, Contacted, Bumped, Smashed) Into Each Other
Results- Mean Speed Estimates of Cars Varied Significantly Depending On The Verb Used, Mean Speed For Collided Was Significantly Lower Than A More Intense Verb Like Smashed
Conclusion- External-Post Event Information Altered Original Memory
Stop/Yield Sign
The theory of reconstructive memory states that recalling information is an active process that involves the reconstruction of information rather than the passive retrieval of information from our memory store. Reconstructive memory suggests that in the absence of all information, we fill in the gaps to make more sense of what happened.
Loftus, Miller et Burns
Aim- Investigate Whether Post-Event Information Alters Original Visual Memory Obtained Through The Event
Method- Independent Measures 2x2 Experimental Design
Procedure- Sample Consisted of 195 Students All Shown A Series of 30 Color Slides Depicting A Car-Pedestrian Accident, The Slides Depicted A Red Datsun Traveling Along A Street Towards An Intersection With A Stop Sign (Half of Participants) and Yield Sign (For Other Half), In The Remaining Slides, The Datsun Turns Right And Knocks Down A Pedestrian Crossing The Street, After Viewing The Slide, Participants Answered A Series of 20 Questions Verbally Asked, The 17th Question Asked Whether The Participant Viewed The Slides While It Was Stopped by the Stop Sign or Yield Sign, Thus A 2x2 Experimental Design As Some Participants Received Verbnal Information Inconsistent With THe Original Visual Memory, After A Filler Task, The Participants Took A Forced-Choice Recognition Test, Choosing Which Slide They Had Originally Seen
Results- Participants Who Received Misleading Verbal Post-Event Information Recognized The Slide They Originally Saw 41% Of The Time, Those Who Received Consistent Information Were Able To Recognize The Slide They Originally Saw 75% Of The Time
Conclusion- Verbal Post-Event Information Can Get Integrated With Original Visual Information, Thus Distorting The Original Memory
Schema Influencing Encoding of Information
Schema theory proposes that our knowledge and understanding of the world is organized into mental frameworks called schemas. These schemas are built through experience and help us interpret and make sense of new information.
Bradsford et Johnson
Aim- Investigate the Effects of Context on Comprehension and Encoding of A Passage
Method- Independent Measures Design
Procedure- Participants Were Instructed To Listen To An Audio Recording Of A Text, Then Were Asked to Recall It As Accurately As Possible, There Were 5 Groups (No Context, No Context 2 Listens, Full Context, Full Context Post Listening, Partial Context [All Elements Present, But Misarranged Making It Hard To Decipher])
Results- No Context Recalled = 3.6 Idea Unites, No Context 2 Listens = 3.8 Idea Units, Full Context = 8 Idea Units, Full Context Post Listen = 3.6 Idea Units, Partial Context 4 Idea Units
Conclusion- Context/Pre-Existing Schema On Topic Enhanced The Comprehension and Encoding of Information
Schema Influencing Retrieval of Information
Schema theory proposes that our knowledge and understanding of the world is organized into mental frameworks called schemas. These schemas are built through experience and help us interpret and make sense of new information.
Schemas influence retrieval of information ( HOMEBUYER AND BURGLAR - Anderson and Pichert
Aim- Investigate Whether Schemas Influence Retrieval of Information
Method- 2x2 Experimental Design
Procedure- Within The Experiment There Were 2 Perspectives (Homebuyer & Burglar), Participants Assigned To Either Homebuyer or Burglar Perspective, For 2 Minutes Participants Read a 373 Word Passage Containing Information Important For A Homebuyer or Burglar To Know, Afterwards They Had a Verbal Filler Task, After The Filler Task Participants Were Given Blank Sheets of Paper and Were Asked To Recall The Story As Accurately As They Could, Afterwards Another Filler Task Was Given (5 Min), Then Participants Were Finally Asked To Recall The Story Again From Either Their Initial Perspective Or From The Other
Results- Participants Assigned To Their Respective Schema Recalled More Information Important For Their Schema, Participants Who Changed Schema For The 2nd Recall Recalled 7.1% Additional Information Important To Their New Schema, Participants Who Retained The Same Schema Recalled 2.9% Additional Information On 2nd Recall
Conclusion- Schema Processing Influences The Encoding of Information & The Recalling of Information
Theory of Planned Behavior / Theory of Reasoned Action
Decision-making frameworks refer to systematic approaches used to understand and analyze the cognitive processes involved in making choices.
Albarracin et al
Aim- To Test The Validity/Accuracy of The Theory of Reasoned Action & Theory of Planned Behavior Models For Condom Use
Method- Meta-Analysis
Procedure- The Researchers Compiled 42 Published and Unpublished Articles & A Total of 96 Data Sets Together, Data From These Articles and Data Sets Were Put Together In One Combined Data Matrix Which Consisted Of TRA and TPB Model, Data Was Then Analyzed To Predict The Validity Of These Models In Terms of Condom Use
Results- Combined Data Sets Showed A 0.51 Correlation Between Intention and Behavior
Conclusion- Both The TRA and TPB Models Are Successful Predictors of Condom Use, Whether Behavior Is Assessed Retrospectively and Prospectively Made A Difference, As Prior Negative Experiences of Each Individual Heavily Influenced Their Intention and Thus Their Behavior (Mistakes Were Made, Thus Use Condom)
Adaptive Decision Making Framework and The 4 Meta-Goals In Thinking
The Adaptive Decision-Maker Framework (ADMF) states that when people make decisions, they have a toolbox of methods. Namely; Weighted Additive Strategy (WADD), Lexicographic strategy (LEX), Satisficing Strategy (SAT) and lastly Elimination by Aspects (EBA). The following are pure methods used when making decisions however in reality, people do not follow these pure methods. The reason being is that when people make decisions they follow the 4 meta goals which are. Maximizing accuracy and ease of justification of decisions, and minimizing cognitive energy used and avoiding negative emotions.
Luce, Bettman et Payne
Aim- Test The Validity of The Adaptive Decision-Making Framework Through 2 Hypotheses: People Make Decisions To Avoid Negative Emotions and Difficult Conflicts, People Spend More Time Making Important Decisions To Unimportant Decisions
Method- Independent Measures Design
Procedure- The Sample Consisted of 27 Undergrads, Participants Assumed The Role of A Charity Member, Participants Were Tasked To Choose Which of 5 Candidate Children Would Receive Financial Aid, Each of The 5 Children Were Described In Terms of 5 Attributes, Each Child Had Attributes Which Were Important When Using Adaptive Decision-Making Framework, Participants Split Into 2 Groups (High Emotion [Given Extensive Background Of Each Child & Their Hardships], Low Emotion [Simply Told That The 4 Remaining Children Weren’t Likely To Receive Financial Aid Anywhere Else
Results- Higher Emotion Group Spent More Time On Task Due To Accuracy of Decision Mattering More, Higher Emotion Group Made Attribute Based-Decisions To Avoid Negative Emotions and Difficult Trade-Offs
Conclusion- Adaptive Decision-Making Framework Is Valid As participants Made Decisions To Avoid Negative Emotions and Difficult Trade-Offs
Framing Effect
Biases in thinking and decision-making refer to systematic errors in judgment or reasoning that can influence how individuals process information and make choices. These biases can occur due to various factors, including cognitive limitations, heuristics (mental shortcuts).
The framing effect occurs when people react differently to something depending on whether it is presented as positive or negative. In other words, our decision is influenced by how the information is presented rather than what is being said.
Tversky et Kahneman
Aim- Investigate The Influence of Positive & Negative Frames on Decision Making
Method- Independent Measures Design
Procedure- The Sample Consisted of 307 Undergrad Volunteers, Participants Were Presented With A Hypothetical Scenario Where A Disease Outbreak Was Expected To Kill 600 People, In One Group (Participants Were Given Positive Frames As Choices Given To Them Were Presented As Potential “Gains”), In Other Group (Participants Were Given Negative Frames As Choices Given To Them Were Presented As Potential “Losses”, 1st Condition Choosing Program A Had 100% Chance of Saving 200 Participants, And Choosing Program B Had 33% Chance That All 600 People Would Be Saved, In 2nd Condition Choosing Program A Meant That There Was A 100% Chance That 400 People Would Die and Choosing Program B Meant There Was A 66% Chance Everyone Would Die, Choices of Both Conditions Had Equal Utility Value Only Differing In Their Framings
Results- 1st Condition (72% Choose Program A, 28% Chose Program B), 2nd Condition (22% Chose Program A, 78% Chose Program D)
Conclusion- The Researchers Concluded That The Way Information Is Framed Greatly Influences Its Interpretation, Despite Utility Value of Both Conditions and Options Being The Exact Same
Confirmation Bias & Congruence Bias
Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. Congruence bias is similar to confirmation bias but specifically involves the tendency to perceive ambiguous information as supporting one’s existing beliefs or expectations, even when the evidence is weak or inconclusive.
Wason
Aim- Demonstrate How Individuals Are Biased Towards Confirming Their Existing Beliefs
Method- Experimental Design
Procedure- Participants Were Asked To Identify A Rule That Applies To A Series of Three Numbers (2, 4, 8), To Find Out What The Rule Was Participants Constructed Another Series Of Three Numbers To Test Their Assumptions, And The Researchers Would Either Confirm Whether Their Series Followed The Rule or Not
Results- Participants Preceeded by Forming An Hypothesis, Then By Proposing Series’ Which Agreed With Their Hypothesis, Without Trying To Disprove It (Participants Didn’t Try To Disprove Their Bias)
Conclusion- This Bias Caused People To Seek Results Which Agreed With Their Hypothesis Rather Than Valuable Information Which Conflicted With Their Results, Despite Both Providing Valuable Information About The Rule
Eye Witnesses of Crime & Leading Questions
A flashbulb memory is a vivid memory about an emotionally arousing event, usually a historic or other notable event.
Yuille and Cutshall
Aim- Investigate Whether Leading Questions and Time Influenced The Accuracy of An Eye-Witnesses Recalling of A Real Crime
Method- Independent Measures Design
Procedure- The Sample Consisted of Witnesses Who Witnessed A Shooting In Vancouver, Crime (A Thief Entered A Shop, Tied Up The Owner, Stole Money and Guns), Then The Owner Untied Himself, Followed The Thief, Fired 6 Shots Into The Thief (Thief Died), 13 of The 21 People Who Witnessed The Crime Agreed To Take Part In The Research Interview 4-5 Months After The Crime, Half The Participants Were Asked Leading Questions Regarding The Crime & Other Half Were Asked Non-Leading Questions
Results- Misleading Questions Had Little To No Impact On The Accuracy of The Recalling, Participants Were Able To Recall The Shooting In Great Detail
Conclusion- Misleading Information Had Little To No Impact On Recalling of The Participants, Supports Flashbulb Memory (Shocking & Emotionally Arousing Event)
9/11 & fMRI
A flashbulb memory is a vivid memory about an emotionally arousing event, usually a historic or other notable event.
Sharot et al
Aim- Investigate Whether Flashbulb Memory Has Its Own Memory Store
Method- Case Study
Procedure- Sample Consisted of 24 Participants Who Experienced The 9/11 Terrorist Attacks, Some Participants lived in Manhattan (Close to World Trade Center) & Others Lived Far From It, Participants Were Placed in fMRI Scans, Then Were Presented With The Words “Summer” or “September”, When Presented These Words The Researchers Would Take Note of Which Parts of The Participant’s Brain Would Activate
Results- Participants From Manhattan Showed Selective Activation of The Amygdala During “September” Trials But Not During “Summer” Trials, 83% of Manhattan Participants’ Amygdala Activated During “September” Trials But Not “Summer” Trials, Of The Participants Who Lived Far From The WTC, Only 40 Participants’ Amygdala Activated During “September” Trials
Conclusion- There Is A Separate Memory Store For Flashbulb Memory, Thus Supporting Theory of Flashbulb Memory (Shocking & Emotionally Arousing Experience)
Video Games & Spatial Relations
Cognitive processing in the digital world refers to how individuals perceive, understand, and interact with information and technology in the context of digital environments.
Sanchez (2012) Video Games and Spatial Relations
Aim- Investigate Effects of Video Games (Halo) on Learning Science (Recalling Information Obtained Through Reading 3,500 Word Essay on Tectonics)
Method- Independent Measures Design
Procedure- Sample Consisted of 60 University Students, Split Into 2 Groups (Spatial Training [Playing Halo], (Non-Spatial Training) [Not Playing Halo]), Afterwards Participants Read A 3,500 Word Essay on Tectonics (Had To Visualize How It Looked), Then Write Their Own Essay Based On This
Results- Spatial Group [Playing Video Games] Scored Better on Written Essay
Conclusion- Spatial Training Through Video Games Can Potentially Improve Understanding of Spatial Relations, However The Study Only Demonstrated Short-Term Effect (Essay Written Immediately After Gaming) & It’s Unclear If The Effect is Long Term
Video Games and Laparoscopic Surgery
Cognitive processing in the digital world refers to how individuals perceive, understand, and interact with information and technology in the context of digital environments.
Rossen et al
Aim- Investigate Possible Link Between Video Gaming & Laparoscopic Surgical Skills and Suturing
Method- Quantitative, Quasi-Study, Self-Reports About Video-Gaming and Surgical Experience
Procedure- Analysis Of The Performance of 33 Surgeons (15 Males, 18 Females) Participating In A “Top Gun Laparoscopic Skills and Suturing Programme”, 3 Different Video-Gaming Exercises Were Performed and Questionnaires Were Completed To Assess Past Experiences With Video Games and Current Level of Play & Level of Surgical Training, Number of Cases Performed and Number of Years in Medical Practice
Results- Top Gun Score (Time and Errors) Was 33% Better for Video-Gamers, and 42% Better If They Played More Than 3 Hours/Week, Past Video Gaming Experience Of More Than 3 Hours/Week Was Correlated with 37% Fewer Errors and 27% Faster Completion of Laparoscopic Surgery, An Overall Video Game Skill Scale Was Highly Correlated With Laparoscopic Skill and Suturing Ability
Conclusion- Video Gaming Skills Were Positively Correlated With Laparoscopic Surgical Skills & Appeared More Important Than Traditionally Recognized Factors Such As Years of Training
