Clicker Questions

Question 1

Which stressor hormone is most likely involved in mediating behavioral responses to stress by acting on the brain?
a) Epinephrine
b) CORT

Answer 1

b) CORT (Corticosterone in rodents and Cortisol in humans) because it can cross the BBB and bind to its receptors in the brain, affecting behavior!

Question 2

Which of the following is important for initiating release of the stress hormone, CORT?
a) The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus
b) The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus
c) The ventromedial nucleus of the thalamus
d) The paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus

Answer 2

b) the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus - The PVN secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin into the hypophyseal portal system, which then act on the anterior pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce and release CORT into the bloodstream.

Question 3

How is the HPA axis able to shut off after being activated?
a) The HPA axis stops activity when the stressor is removed
b) Glucose stores are depleted after an immediate stressor so the HPA axis shuts off
c) CORT binds to GRs on the hypothalamus and pituitary to shut off the HPA axis
d) The HPA axis receives input from the parasympathetic nervous system, which tells it to shut off

Answer 3

c) CORT binds to GRs on the hypothalamus and pituitary to shut off the HPA axis - The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis can shut off its activity through a negative feedback loop where CORT (cortisol in humans, corticosterone in rodents) binds to glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. This binding inhibits the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which in turn reduces the release of CORT from the adrenal glands, thereby dampening the HPA axis activity.

Question 4

Which of the following is a consequence of GPCR activation?
a) Gene expression is altered
b) Intracellular proteins are altered
c) Downstream ion channels are altered
d) First messenger signal is amplified
e) All of the above

Answer 4

e - all of the above - Activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can lead to a variety of cellular responses including altered gene expression, changes in the activity of intracellular proteins, modulation of downstream ion channels, and amplification of the first messenger signal. GPCRs activate intracellular signaling cascades that can have multiple effects on cellular functions.

Question 5

***Using electrophysiology, what do you think would be a good measure of LTP?
a) There is greater postsynaptic depolarization in response to the same electrical stimulation
b) There is greater postsynaptic hyperpolarization in response to the same electrical stimulation
c) There is a greater excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) to the same electrical stimulation
d) A and C
e) B and C

Answer 5

c) There is a greater excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) to the same electrical stimulation

Question 6

What is the result of increased AMPA receptors into the post-synaptic cell?
a) The postsynaptic cell has more intracellular signaling cascades initiated
b) The postsynaptic cell becomes insensitive to glutamate
c) The postsynaptic cell is more permeable to Ca2+ ions
d) The postsynaptic cell is more permeable to Na+ ions

Answer 6

d) The postsynaptic cell is more permeable to Na+ ions

Question 7

A strong stimulus results in long-term potentiation because:
a) There is more depolarization of the post-synaptic cell, allowing more Na+ to flow in
b) There is more depolarization of the post-synaptic cell, allowing Ca2+ to flow in
c) There is more hyperpolarization of the post-synaptic cell, allowing more K+ to flow out
d) The presynaptic cell releases more glutamate, activating mGluRs resulting in intracellular signaling cascades

Answer 7

b) There is more depolarization of the post-synaptic cell, allowing Ca2+ to flow in.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is typically associated with the activation of NMDA receptors, which are voltage-dependent and require both glutamate binding and post-synaptic depolarization to remove the Mg2+ ion that blocks the channel. Once this block is removed, Ca2+ can flow into the post-synaptic cell, which triggers a cascade of intracellular events that lead to synaptic strengthening and the molecular changes associated with LTP.

Question 8

After you administer a strong stimulus, LTP is induced. This is measured by the fact that a weak stimulus can now induce a strong effect (strong synaptic activity). What is the underlying mechanism behind this?
a) There are more NMDA receptors inserted into the postsynaptic cell
b) There are more AMPA receptors inserted into the postsynaptic cell
c) The AMPA receptors have a lower threshold for activation
d) The NMDA receptors have a lower threshold for activation

Answer 8

b) There are more AMPA receptors inserted into the postsynaptic cell.

One of the key changes during LTP is the activity-dependent increase in the number of AMPA receptors in the postsynaptic membrane, which enhances the postsynaptic cell’s response to glutamate released by a subsequent weak stimulus. This increased number of AMPA receptors allows for more sodium ions (Na+) to enter the postsynaptic neuron upon glutamate binding, thus amplifying the postsynaptic response.

Question 8

What contributes to the persistence of LTP?
a) Ca2+ influx initiates protein synthesis
b) AMPA receptors are stabilized into the PSD
c) Na+ influx initiates protein synthesis
d) A and B
e) B and C

Answer 8

d) A and B

The influx of Ca2+ during LTP is crucial for activating intracellular signaling pathways that lead to protein synthesis, including the synthesis of new AMPA receptors and their insertion and stabilization at the synaptic site. This stabilization of AMPA receptors at the PSD is important for the maintenance of the strengthened synaptic response characteristic of LTP.

Question 9

What are the 4 main steps in the scientific process?

Answer 9

1) Observation -observe a behavior, manipulate variables
2) Replication - repeat your findings within the same lab
3) Interpretation - make conclusions about your data and distribute your findings
4) Reproducibility - other labs can repeat your findings

Question 10

What determines which cells are a target for a particular systemic hormone?
a) The target cell expresses the enzymes to produce the hormone
b) The target cell expresses the proteins for the hormone receptor
c) The target cell contains the DNA for the hormone receptor
d) Astrological sign and vibes of the target cell
e) B and C

Answer 10

b) The target cell expresses the proteins for the hormone receptor

Hormones exert their effects on cells by binding to specific receptors expressed on the surface or inside of target cells. The presence of these receptors makes a cell responsive to a particular hormone.

Question 11

How are hormones able to reach their target cell?
a) Through the synaptic cleft between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell
b) Through the bloodstream
c) Through diffuse axons have synapses on many different neurons
d) Through cerebrospinal fluid

Answer 11

b) Through the bloodstream

Question 12

What is the difference between a releasing hormone and an effector hormone?

Answer 12

-a releasing hormone acts on endocrine cells to regulate the release of other hormones
-an effector hormone produces a regulatory effect on a cell or tissue to produce a physiological or psychological function

Question 13

What type of hormone is being released from the posterior pituitary?
a) Neurohormones
b) Tropic hormones
c) Steroid hormones
d) A and B

Answer 13

a) Neurohormones.

The posterior pituitary gland releases neurohormones, which are hormones that are produced by neurosecretory cells and released into the blood following a neural signal. The main neurohormones released by the posterior pituitary are oxytocin and vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH)

Question 14

Why do you think it’s functionally important for the magnocellular neurons and the parvocellular neurons to differ in cell body size?
a) The types of neurohormones they produce differ in size
b) They have different lengths in axons
c) They produce different quantities of hormone
d) They have different neuronal firing rates

Answer 14

c) They produce different quantities of hormone

Magnocellular neurons, which are larger, are involved in the production of larger quantities of oxytocin and vasopressin (neurohormones) and have axons that project to the posterior pituitary. The larger size of magnocellular neurons supports the higher volume of neurohormone production and transport needed for release into the bloodstream

Question 15

What neuroendocrine cells are involved in the HPG Axis? (Hint, think anterior pituitary pathway)
a) Parvocellular neurons
b) Magnocellular neurons
c) Both
d) Not enough information to know

Answer 15

a) Parvocellular neurons

Parvocellular neurons in the hypothalamus produce and secrete gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which travels to the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thus playing a critical role in the HPG Axis. Magnocellular neurons, in contrast, are involved in the production of oxytocin and vasopressin, which are not directly part of the HPG Axis

Question 16

Which of the following is false?
a) The human brain changes throughout one’s life
b) The human brain is a mosaic of features, each of which falls somewhere
along a continuum of “male-like” or “female-like”
c) The human brain has distinct ”male-like” features for males & these are
statistically different from distinct “female-like” features for females
d) Hormones have both ”activational” and “organizational” effects on the
human brain

Answer 16

c) The human brain has distinct ”male-like” features for males & these are
statistically different from distinct “female-like” features for females

This statement is false because while there are average differences in the structure and function of male and female brains, there is significant overlap, and brains cannot be categorized into two distinct classes based on sex. The concept of brain “mosaicism” suggests that individual brains exhibit a unique mix of features that can be considered more typical of male or female brain structure but do not conform to a strict binary.

Question 17

Where is the autonomic nervous system receiving direct input from?
a) The thalamus
b) The cortex
c) The hypothalamus
d) The pituitary gland

Answer 17

c) The hypothalamus

The hypothalamus plays a critical role in controlling the autonomic nervous system. It receives information about the internal state of the body and is involved in numerous autonomic processes such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal.

Question 18

Epinephrine released from the adrenal medulla is a:
a) Neurotransmitter
b) Tropic hormone
c) Neurohormone
d) Effector hormone

Answer 18

d) Effector hormone

Question 19

CRF is a(n):
a) Effector hormone
b) Neurohormone
c) Tropic hormone

Answer 19

c) Tropic hormone.

CRH is a peptide hormone secreted by the hypothalamus that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), making it a tropic hormone. It’s also considered a neurohormone because it is produced by neurons and acts on the pituitary gland, but within the context of the options provided, tropic hormone is the most specific classification.

Question 20

Where are corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) receptors located?
a) The hypothalamus
b) The anterior pituitary gland
c) The adrenal gland
d) The amygdala

Answer 20

b) The anterior pituitary gland.

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptors are located on the cells of the anterior pituitary gland, where CRF binds to stimulate the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

Question 21

ACTH is a(n):
a) Effector hormone
b) Neurohormone
c) Tropic hormone

Answer 21

c) Tropic hormone.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is a tropic hormone because it stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce and secrete corticosteroids, including cortisol.

Question 22

CORT is a(n):
a) Effector hormone
b) Neurohormone
c) Tropic hormone

Answer 22

a) Effector hormone.

Cortisol (CORT) is an effector hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that has widespread effects on various bodily functions, including metabolism and immune response.

Question 23

Where are glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) located; what is their function?
a) GRs are located on the surface of cell membranes; they function to initiate intracellular cascades
b) GRs are located on the surface of cell membranes; they function to depolarize cells
c) GRs are located inside the cell; they function to initiate intracellular cascades
d) GRs are located inside the cell; they function as transcription factors to alter gene expression

Answer 23

d) GRs are located inside the cell; they function as transcription factors to alter gene expression

Glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) are intracellular receptors that, upon binding with glucocorticoids like cortisol, translocate to the cell nucleus and function as transcription factors to regulate the expression of certain genes.

Question 24

Which stressor hormone is most likely involved in mediating behavioral responses to stress by acting on the brain?
a) Epinephrine
b) CORT

Answer 24

b) CORT

CORT affects the behavioral response of stress because it can cross the BBB and bind to its receptors in the brain, affecting behavior!

Question 25

Which of the following is important for initiating release of the stress hormone, CORT?
a) The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus
b) The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus
c) The ventromedial nucleus of the thalamus
d) The paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus

Answer 25

b) The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus is important for initiating the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which in turn stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary gland. ACTH then prompts the release of the stress hormone cortisol (CORT) from the adrenal cortex.

Question 26

How is the HPA axis able to shut off after being activated?
a) The HPA axis stops activity when the stressor is removed
b) Glucose stores are depleted after an immediate stressor so the HPA axis shuts off
c) CORT binds to GRs on the hypothalamus and pituitary to shut off the HPA axis
d) The HPA axis receives input from the parasympathetic nervous system, which tells it to shut off

Answer 26

c) CORT binds to GRs on the hypothalamus and pituitary to shut off the HPA axis

This is an example of negative feedback, where the end product (in this case, cortisol) inhibits the process that produces it. Cortisol binds to glucocorticoid receptors in the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland, reducing the secretion of CRH and ACTH, respectively, and thus inhibiting further cortisol production.

Question 27

Which of the following is a consequence of GPCR activation?
a) Gene expression is altered
b) Intracellular proteins are altered
c) Downstream ion channels are altered
d) First messenger signal is amplified
e) All of the above

Answer 27

Activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can lead to various cellular responses, including altered gene expression, modification of intracellular proteins, changes in ion channel activity, and amplification of the first messenger signal, which is a characteristic feature of GPCR signaling pathways.

Question 28

Where is GnRH released onto?
a) The anterior pituitary
b) The posterior pituitary
c) The median eminence
d) Into the general circulation

Answer 28

c) The median eminence

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is released into the portal blood vessels at the median eminence, a part of the hypothalamus. From there, it is transported directly to the anterior pituitary gland where it stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

Question 29

Where is LH and FSH released onto?
a) The anterior pituitary
b) The posterior pituitary
c) The median eminence
d) Into the general circulation

Answer 29

d) into general circulation

Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are released by the anterior pituitary gland into the bloodstream, where they travel to their target organs to exert their effects on reproduction, including the regulation of the menstrual cycle in females and spermatogenesis in males.

Question 30

Testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone are considered:
a) Neurohormones
b) Releasing hormones
c) Effector hormones

Answer 30

c) effector hormones

Testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone are considered effector hormones because they directly affect the function of target cells and tissues throughout the body, influencing a wide range of physiological processes including reproductive functions, secondary sexual characteristics, and metabolism