Class Slide Deck (All Chapters) Flashcards
How is rape considered a crime of violence?
> Visceral (instinctual) reaction as rape.
Violation of the most intimate kind.
strikes at our identities as women and men
is the ultimate assaultive crime
“Rape strips its victim of her power to make determinations about perhaps the single most intrinsic value in her existence: the right to share intimacy.”
What are misunderstandings of rape?
– Perceive - crime only against women.
– Think - only in terms of forced intercourse
The national Violence Against Women & Men Survey that suggests that there are how many victims of rape occur annually?
> Over 900,000 men and women over the age of 18 - victims of rape annually.
Are police reports reliable for rape?
> less reliable police reports available in most cases
> Most of the research is not focused on exclusively police reports - if we focused on UCR data, (it is less likely to be reported) we would not have an accurate number.
> more likely to bring in rape victimization surveys to understand prevalence (self reports are good but surveys are better)
Most victims, less than 3 out of 10, report victimization. They are reluctant because:
– Intimate nature
– Fear of retaliation
– Fear of not being believed
– Shame, embarrassment, and social stigma
– Fear of being victimized by justice system (2nd rape) – revictimization by CJS
Demographic Factors from
the NCVS:
– Younger people had the highest rates of rape - 16 to 19 years - greatest risk
of rape.
– By the age of 35, the risk of rape decreases significantly - remains low levels
throughout life course.
– Income also appears to be related to rape victimization.
– Lower incomes - increased risk of victimization
College Women and Rape - what do we know?
- Women attending college - greater risk for rape, sexual assault
– Nearly 5% of college women victimized in any given year.
– Every 1,000 women attending college - may be 35 incidents of rape in a given academic year.
– Sampled 6,000 students from 32 colleges and found 53% reported some sort of unwanted sexual contact.
– 15% had been victimized by rape, and 12% an attempted rape.
> Part of the can vary due to lifestyle (i.e. you are more likely to come into contact with more people/socialization when going to college)
What can be said about the assailants for college rape?
> Most victims know their assailants.
– 9 out of 10 offenders were known to the victim - NCWSV study, Koss found 83% of
victims knew assailant.
– Majority of offenders were classmates, friends, boyfriends, ex-boyfriends.
Where were the majority of college rapes perpetrated and how were they facilitated?
> Majority of rapes, on or off campus, took place in residences.
> Facilitated - variety of drugs
Prison Rape- what is it?
– Rape and sexual assaults against inmates that occur in correctional facilities
– Perpetrated by other inmates and/or correctional staff
What prevents reports of prision rape?
> Convict culture - prohibits snitching and precludes victims’ reporting
> “Snitches” or “rats” who inform on other inmates are considered the lowest members of the inmate hierarchy.
What report is infamous for prison rape?
> Human Rights Watch testimony from over 200 prisoners in 37 states and published “No Escape: Male Rape in Prison.”
What law was enacted for prison rape?
– Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003
– Requires data collection on sexual assault
Rape and the U.S. Military: what did the Survey for active-duty men, women by Rand Corporation for DOD find about women and unwanted sexual contact in the past year? Who was it reported to?
- women’s unwanted sexual contact in past year declined from 6.1% 2012 to 4.3% in
2014.
– (53%) female victims - reported attacks to military authority - perceived social
retaliation, perceived adverse administrative action (35%) or professional
retaliation (32%)
- The DOD stands for the Department of Defence.
Genocide and Rape- how does it connect to war? Provide some examples;
– Rape as a byproduct of war, population annihilation, and ethnic cleansing
– Women - “spoils of war.”
– Widespread brutal rape of Tutsi women in Rwanda
– International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda convicted Jean Paul Akayesu in 1998
– Serbian “ethnic cleansing” efforts
What kind of phenomenon is rape?
– Rape is varied phenomenon, rapists heterogeneous group.
– No single theory is going to explain all rape.
– Studies - interviews with convicted rapists in prison can not be generalized to
all rapists
Rapists commit crimes for variety of reasons, but three themes seem to run through all of them
– Power
– Anger
– Sexuality
How does power and dominance play into rape? What is the evidence for it?
– Marital or intimate partner rape: is perpetrated against 10% to 14% of all married women and accounts for a quarter of all rapes. Many suggest that this form of rape is often accompanied by additional forms of domestic violence and involves a male perpetrator using sexual violence to maintain power and control.
– Evidence from research with primates - the work of Robert Sapolsky, who did extensive fieldwork with baboons living in the wild, witnessed rapes among baboon communities.
One such classification scheme divides rapists into four broad types:
1) Power reassurance
2) Anger retaliation
3) Power Assertive
4) Sadistic
what is the power reassurance rape? (What is the individual that perpetrates it like?)
> suffers from low self-esteem, feelings of being inadequate and, in the act of rape, tries to achieve a sense of personal empowerment
What is the anger retaliation rape? (What is the individual that perpetrates it like?)
> feels a tremendous amount of hostility toward women and consequently uses rape as a vehicle of revenge
What is the power assertive rape? (What is the individual that perpetrates it like?)
> individuals achieve a powerful feeling of being in control and of
having the power of life or death over their victims
What is the Sadistic rape? (What is the individual that perpetrates it like?)
> displays extreme violence and cruelty; revels in the pain and humiliation that
inflicted on their victims
Power and Dominance- what are feminist components?
– Violence against women - expression - patriarchal social structure. (both sexual and non-sexual)
– Subjugation of women built into organization of society.
– Socialization encourages males to associate aggression and virility with masculinity and women to adopt submissive/passive roles.
– Traditional sex roles - rape is an act of social control, an extension of normative male behavior that defines the traditional male sex role and is integral to the historical powerlessness of women in male-dominated societies.
What are some Recent Legislations to Combat Sexual Violence?
– Pam Lychner Sexual Offender Tracking and Identification Act.
– Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act.
– Residential proximity.
What is the effect of a sex-offender registry?
– No decline after registries were introduced.
- the results indicate that incidents of sexual violence did not decline after such registries were introduced.
- Findings revealed that neither future arrests nor future convictions were reduced for those offenders required to register
– Examination of sex offender legislation
What is the #MeToo movement?
– Found by Tarana Burke; heels of #NotOkay.
- The #MeToo movement did not come to the forefront of public consciousness until several women alleged that movie producer, Harvey Weinstein, had raped them in October of 2017.
– Decrease prevalence of sexual assault.
- about 30% of those who have tweeted the hashtag are men.
What are the conclusions of rape?
– Rape is not a rare event.
– Sexual assault is used a tool of violence, power, and
dominance.
– As the law stands, the vast majority of assailants will never
be punished.
When the criminal code was amedned in Canada in 1982 - rape was abolished and replaced with what? What was the reasoning?
> ape was abolished and replaced with “sexual assault”
> the thinking was to more closely align rape with assault - the focus was on hammering home the idea home that rape is as far away from sex and that it is more akin to a brutal horrifc assault on another human being.
What is the most reliable information on rape victimization?
> social scientific surveys
In relation to rape, what does the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) do?
> The only survey that monitors rape and sexual assault on an annual basis is the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS).
> The questions used to uncover rape are probably the least behaviorally specific.
> In addition to directly asking respondents whether they have experienced “any rape, attempted rape, or other type of sexual attack,” they also ask the following: Incidents involving forced or unwanted sexual acts
What is the Student Right-to-Know and Campus Security Act of 1990? Why was it passed?
> This legislation mandates that colleges and universities participating in federal student aid programs “prepare, publish, and distribute, through appropriate publications and mailings, to all current students and employees, and to any applicant for enrollment upon request, an annual security report.” Title II of Public Law 101–542.
> Part of the can vary due to lifestyle (i.e. you are more likely to come into contact with more people/socialization when going to college)c
Because of the increased vulnerability to rape and other crimes faced by college students, the US Congress passed the Student Right-to-Know and Campus Security Act of 1990.
What is the “invisible war”
> is a groundbreaking investigative documentary about one of America’s most shameful and best kept secrets: the epidemic of rape within the U.S. military.
What are “spoils of war”
> term is often used to explain some type of ‘benefit’ to the attacker/the other side engaged in war during a genocide (in this case barbaric, violent, viscous act of brutality by raping the ‘enemies’ women and children).
What is sexual trespass and who coined it?
> Susan Brownmiller explains that women are raped in war by ordinary youths as casually, or as frenetically, as a village is looted or gratuitously destroyed.
> Sexual trespass on the enemy’s women is one of the satisfactions of conquest.
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Testimonies from survivors in recent times confirm: Rape is what in relation to war?
> extremely widespread and that hundreds of thousands of victims across the globe have been individually raped, gang-raped, raped with objects, held in sexual slavery, or sexually mutilated during contemporary wars and ethnic cleansing campaigns.
Diana Scully and Joseph Marolla explain the power and dominance behind rape:
> Males are taught to have expectations about their level of sexual needs and expectations for corresponding female accessibility which function to justify forcing sexual access.
> The justification for forced sexual access is buttressed by legal, social, and religious definitions of women as male property and sex as an exchange of goods.
> Socialization prepares women to be “legitimate” victims and men to be potential offenders.
What is the Pam Lychner Sexual Offender Tracking and Identification Act of 1996? What did it mandate?
> Another legislative addition passed by Congress was this act, in memory of a victims’ rights activist who died in the TWA Flight 800 crash off the coast of Long Island, New York.
> This act mandated the creation of a national database of convicted sex offenders designed to track offenders as they moved from state to state and cover for states not in compliance with the Wetterling Act.
What is the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act?
> passed by the US Congress in 2006 it mandated a number of changes, including expanding the definition of jurisdiction to include federally recognized American Indian tribes and expanding the number of sex offenses that must be captured by registrations.
> The Adam Walsh Act also established a new office within the US Department of Justice to administer the standards for sex offender notification and registration called the Office of Sex Offender Sentencing, Monitoring, Apprehending, Registering and Tracking (SMART).
Residential proximity appear to matter so little with regard to sexual reoffending: Much has to do with the patterns of sexual offending in general. Sex offenders are more likely to do what?
> much more likely to victimize someone they know.
One of the most common victim–offender relationships of this study for those who victimized children was that:
> a male offender developing a romantic relationship with a woman who had children.
> They used their relationships with these women to gain access to their victims or through babysitting for an acquaintance or co-worker.
Chrysanthi Leon concluded that all sex offenders, regardless of the contextual circumstances of their crimes, are now classified as what?
> “monsters” requiring confinement, which prioritizes the public’s belief “that all sexual offending is harmful, dangerous, and caused by deviant desires that are compulsive and beyond control.”
What is the hope of the MeToo movement?
> The hope is that as a society, these posts and movements might decrease individual perceptions that this predatory behavior is going to be tolerated.
How is the MeToo movement an informal social control?
> Offending behavior made public on social media not only has the potential of resulting in formal sanctions by the courts, but also involved public shaming, which is a form of informal social control.
How is the MeToo movement a formal social control?
> Which involves formal law enforcement sanctions, informal social control sanctions do not involve the criminal justice system.
> They are meted out by our family, friends, places of employment, and so on.
Which informal controls are just as strong as formal controls?
> For example, shaming, loss of status in society, careers etc.
> Importantly, research shows that informal sanctions like these are just as powerful as formal sanctions in deterring criminal behavior.
Why can MeToo movements decrease rape prevalence?
> Movements like these may decrease prevalence of sexual assault for several reasons including by changing social attitudes about what behavior is appropriate and by increasing the costs, both formal and informal, of engaging in such behavior.
What is a primary homicide?
> involved intimates, friends, and acquaintances (killed by)
> the most common type
> the least talked about
What is a secondary homicide? What did Marvin Wolfgang also call this?
> involved strangers (killed by)
> He also coined the phrase stranger crime for this latter category.
> they are the most talked about homicides
> people are most fearful of this type
> the most rare kind of homicide (Compared to primary)
Crimes that are most likely to be committed by strangers include what?
> Include robbery, workplace violence including bank robbery, and street gang violence.
Marvin Wolfgang divided homicide into two categories - what are they?
> primary homicides + secondary homicides
How does the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) define Robbery?
> “Completed or attempted theft, directly from a person, of property or cash by force or threat of force, with or without a weapon, and with or without injury.
Robbery occurs in different contexts, including:
> including homes, public locations, and commercial establishments.
Sometimes robbery involves offenders known to their victims, but more often it is the case of what?
> involves strangers, and the dynamics of each robbery event can vary dramatically.
What do robberies often escalate to?
> often escalate to murder
What are the two threatening elements of robbery?
What is burglary? What kind of crime is it?
> an act in which an offender(s) breaks into a residence and steals a homeowner’s belongings, is a property crime because there is no force or threat of force to a person
Can a burglary become a robbery?
> A burglary can become a robbery if an offender finds someone in the house and uses or threatens to use force against that person during the commission of the crime.
What demographic is most likely to experience burglary? Are the rates of robbery stable?
> young adults
rates have remained stable
Marital status and geographical location are also related to robbery victimization - how so?
> Those living in urban locations are more likely to experience a robbery compared with either their suburban or rural counterparts.
> Being single, either through never marrying or being divorced or separated, also increases the risk of robbery.
Equally likely to occur in the daytime as at night: what are the rates out of 10?
> Over four in ten robberies occur at or near a personal residence, while just over half of all robberies occur in public spaces.
What are three elements that robbery can involve?
> theft
violence
self-protective action
What is robbery sometimes referred to as?
> sometimes referred to as muggings or stickups.
What is the common motivation to commit robbery?
> satisfy immediate/illicit gratification need
What did Richard Wright and Scott Decker, who interviewed over 80 active robbers in St. Louis, Missouri, find out about the motivation for those that have committed robbery?
> Richard Wright and Scott Decker, who interviewed over 80 active robbers in St. Louis, Missour
How does Elijah Anderson’s code of the streets relate to robbery?
> One of the “codes” is protecting one’s honor and reputation against acts of disrespect, even with violence if necessary.
What did Wright and Decker believe robbery was to an individual that commits robbery?
> “an open-ended quest for excitement and sensory stimulation,” which tends to include things such as gambling, drug use, and heavy drinking.
Researchers have found that what elements of street culture prompt robbery?
> outward appearances, dress, and accessories, are also an important part of street culture
> some commit robbery to buy status items like the correct brand-named clothes and accessories, like jewelry.
Why do people engage in robbery?
> can provide a “rush” or thrill: thrill/danger posed by victimizing someone who might fight back or who could be armed may provide adrenaline rush.
> Possibly empowering, sense of mastery and dominance part of motivation for the offender.
> Some engage in violence to fulfill survival needs (money / essential needs like food)
>
What was the sample of robbers like in Wright and Decker’s study? What did they claim would stop them from committing robbery?
> all unskilled and poorly educated
> menial with low pay or opportunity for advancement or status
> claimed that they would stop robbing if they were given a good job.
What does Cohen and Felson’s Theory of Routine Activities Theory argue? Is it a valid theory?
> argue that if these three components come together in time and space, they make for the ‘perfect storm’ for criminality to take place.
> The theory and its conceptual frameworks have been tested many times and been found to be a strong theory (valid, reliable and generalizable) that can be applied for different types of crime and, crime victims.
What are the three components of Cohen and Felson’s Theory of Routine Activities Theory argue? What also happens with these three components?
> Suitable target
> Capable guardians
> Motivated criminals/offender
> when all three have physical convergence in time and space = robbery occurs / is more likely to occur.
> if you remove one of these components = reduce the odds of crime occuring (Robbery)
What is a “suitable target” according to the routines activity theory?
> Perception of target vulnerability.
> As potential criminals go about their daily activities, they may encounter targets of illegal opportunity: an empty carport, an open door, an unlocked car, a bike left on the street.
> Corner homes, especially those near traffic lights or stop signs, are more likely to be burglarized.
> Secluded homes, such as those at the end of a cul-de-sac, surrounded by wooded areas, also make suitable targets.
What is a Capable guardian according to routine activities theory?
> In routine activities theory, the presence of police, homeowners, neighbours, and others, which can have a deterrent effect on crime. Can take the form of an individual (neighbours) or something inanimate (like a light on at the front porch)
What is a motivated criminal/offender according to the Routines activity theory?
> The potential offenders in a population.
> According to rational choice theory, crime rates will vary according to the number of motivated offenders.
> Typically are young males, homeless, disenfranchised, and unemployed.
Robbers often use what to get their victims to comply?
> violence or the threat of violence to get victims to comply
Lindegaard, Bernasco, and Jacques describe a robbery event as beginning when what occurs? When can physical injury / force can occur?
> beginning when “the offender makes the victims aware they are being robbed, and its progression, the subsequent flow of events until the offender leaves the scene.”
> Physical force and injury can occur during any stage in their model.
What do Robbers do during robberies to also increase victim compliance?
> Announce stickup and establish dominance and control
According to Wright and Decker, most offenders typically opened their armed robberies with what? How did they conduct the robbery?
> typically opened their armed robberies with a demand that victims stop and listen to them and then quickly summarize the situation for the victim
> The majority of assailants also used a gun, the bigger the better.
> If a potential victim refused to comply, the robbery offenders most often responded with brutality.
> armed robberies that resulted in the death = rare and the vast majority of offenders never intended to seriously injure, much less kill, their victims.
What does victim resistance increase the likelihood of?
> increases likelihood that robber will use physical force against intended target.
Jody Miller: analyzed 14 interviews with active female robbers from Wright and Decker’s sample. She found that the most common form of female robbery was what? What should be noted about this result?
> was to rob other females in a physically confrontational manner
> NOTE: small sample size.
Miller’s research does reveal some interesting gender differences in robbery offending - what has been found?
> found that the motivations for robbery were essentially the same for male and female robbers;
> however, their modus operandi was different.
- commit robberies to party/pursue rather than for pleasures
- rarely ambushed their target
What kind of problem did Simon Hallsworth believe street robbery was?
> street robbery problem of a society that induces young people to desire and covet the very goods associated with the ‘good life’.
What does the Institutional theory of anomie state about robbery?
> if all citizens had equal access to a quality education and a good job that would allow them to provide a good life for themselves and their families, rates of robbery would most certainly decrease.
What does the Cost-benefit analysis of robbery involve?
> a majority of robbers may anticipate getting arrested in the future, they may not perceive this as a real threat or cost.
- sometimes they overestimate the likelihood of the benefit and underestimate the risk/cost to the consequences
- or sometimes they are right.
What does robbery have a strong connection to?
> strong connection between robbery + the state of the economy
> Offenders lives spent on the street, riddled with insecurity, poverty, disorganization, and addiction.
Recommendation that penalties for robbery be increased? What are the penalties like now?
> Penalties for robbery are already very extreme.
For the crime of murder, convicted robbers are more likely to be sentenced to what?
> prison compared with offenders convicted of other crimes of violence, including rapists.
What does situational crime prevention entail?
> technical and structural solutions to crime and in response design environments or products in ways that minimize the risk of victimization.
> Measures such as installing cameras in crime-prone areas are among such techniques.
What are the programs committed to reducing street robbery most similar to?
> similar to capable guardianship from routines activity theory
What were bank robberies used to be seen as? What occured during this time when bank robberies were most common?
> banks associated with big business and government authority so people felt just in robbing them
> Poverty, job loss, foreclosures, and hopelessness were prevalent, many bank robbers were seen as underdogs fighting a cruel and unjust system.
Do bank robberies get media attention? Are they common?
> rarely get media attention
> Despite the lack of media coverage and more sophisticated security systems, bank robberies are still relatively common.
In order, what are the most common bank robberies by type of institution in 2018?
1) commerical bank 91%
2) Credit unions 7%
3) Unknown + savings/loans (both 1%)
4) Armored carrier + mutual savings bank (0% each)
In order, what is the most to least common frequency of bank robberies by day?
1) Friday
2) Monday
3) Thursday
4) Tuesday
5) Wednesday
6) Saturday
7) Sunday
Who are the majority of street robberies committed by?
> majority committed by males: females represented about 8% of all offenders.
Most bank robberies involve:
> individual waiting in line for a teller,
> passing note to teller letting teller know bank is being robbed.
> Happens very quickly, most customers usually don’t even know a robbery is taking place.
What is a Takeover robbery?
> involves several armed individuals seizing control of a bank.
> Risks are greater, potentially larger payoff.
What are other workplace fatalities?
> transportation accidents, fires and explosions, accidental hits by machinery or other equipment, falls, slips, trips, and exposure to toxic substances.
People in health professions (mental health workers, nurses) relatively at high risk: in particular what kind of worker?
> those who work in emergency rooms.
> Makes sense when we realize that people admitted to emergency rooms are often high or intoxicated, suffering from mental illness, or going through withdrawals and detoxing, all of which can increase the risk of violent assault.
Are men or women more likely to be killed on the job?
> Females, more likely to be murdered on job compared to their male counterparts:
- Women on the job were most likely to be killed by an intimate, an ex, or some other family member, followed by robbers, and co-workers.
> Compare this to males, whose relatives perpetrated the crime in only 2% of cases. (usually killed by someone unknown to them or a robber)
Differential risk of particular types of violence varies across different occupations: Specifically, people in what kind of occupation are more likely to be killed robberies? How about assault victimizations?
> people in retail sales have the highest risk for robbery victimization, while law enforcement personnel have the highest assault risk.
not all retail sales positions are at equal risk for violence - what do the stats say?
> Even within job categories, however, risks can vary.
> Statistics indicate that within retail sales positions, bartenders appear particularly vulnerable to workplace violence, as do gas station attendants.
> Also, while those in law enforcement appear to be especially vulnerable to violence on the job, police officers are over twice as likely to be victimized as corrections officers.
Jobs can also vary by what other factor?
> Jobs located in high crime areas heighten the risk as well:
> A position that requires an employee to be out and about in the community especially at all hours of the day and night makes the job a bit more dangerous.
> When your job requires that you work with high risk populations, including criminal justice involved individuals or those with mental health issues, this also increases the risk of being victimized.
National Gang Center: Sponsored by the US Department of Justice, uses the following criteria for classifying groups as gangs:
1) The group has three or more members, generally aged 12–24.
2) Members share an identity, typically linked to a name, and often other symbols.
3) Members view themselves as a gang, and they are recognized by others as a gang.
4) The group has some permanence and a degree of organization.
5) The group is involved in an elevated level of criminal activity.
What gangs are excluded from the National Gang Center criteria?
> These criteria exclude other types of gangs that are typically more organized and composed of older adults, including prison gangs, motorcycle gangs, and other organized crime gangs.
Is there a single definition for gangs?
> There is no single accepted definition of a “gang” in general: The issue is that other terms are often used interchangeably with gang, including street gang, youth gang, and so on.
Where does the majority of street gang violence take place?
> Here we see as might be expected, the majority of gang violence and gang activity occurs in urban settings - large cities (to a lesser degree in small cities / suburbs / rural areas)
What is the main reason to join a street gang? What are other reasons?
> One study found that the need for protection is the main reason members gave for joining.
> Other common reasons: wanting to feel safe, wanting to be respected and wanting to belong.
Yasser Payne: argues adapting to street life is what?
> a “site of resilience” that emerges as a function of blocked economic and educational opportunity.
In some cities, gang violence represents a larger proportion of all violence than in other cities: For example- what are some “gang capitals”?
> in the so-called gang capitals of the United States, Chicago and Los Angeles, about half of all homicides are gang related.
what is the breakdown of percentages for gang-related homicdes by geographic area 2012?
1) Large cities = 67%
2) Suburban = 17%
3) Small cities = 11%
4) Small areas = 5%
Another important element related to gang violence in certain cities is what? Is it clear in how the two are related?
> cities is drug-related activity, but it is not clear how it is related.
> Some contend that the illicit drug trafficking and sales conducted by gangs is what increases violence, while others contend both drugs and gang activity are caused by the preexisting conditions of social disorganization and economic disadvantage.
What other type of conflict is related to gang violence?
> Conflict between rival gangs is also related to gang violence.
> This violence, which includes homicides, is frequently the result of several conflict-related circumstances, including maintaining turf, defending one’s identity as a gang member, defense of the gang’s honor and reputation, and revenge or retaliation.
What overall goal are programs against preventing gang violence connected to?
> Connected with an overall goal of reducing juvenile delinquency in general
> cannot be effective without considering larger community and societal contexts in which gangs exist.
> For example, providing conflict resolution training along with educational and/or vocational training.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) developed Comprehensive Gang Model to reduce gang crime - what is this model?
> Comprehensive Gang Model is designed to reduce gang crime in targeted neighborhoods using interventions that had been shown to work in addressing individual, family, and community factors that contributed to juvenile delinquency and gang activity.
Cure Violence: Views violence from a public health perspective - what are the three components?
1) The goal of this program is to reduce homicides by identifying youth who are most at risk of being shot or shooting someone else.
2) Trained mediators, who are often former gang members, mediate conflicts between gang-involved youth both in the streets and in hospital emergency rooms.
3) Experimental evaluations indicate that it did significantly reduce homicides in the vast majority of cities in which it was implemented.
Are programs against gang violence effective? What are the underlying factors from which gang members are created?
> While this and similar programs have shown promise, it is important to remember that they do not change the underlying factors from which gang members are created,
> which include structural disadvantage, blocked educational and economic opportunities, and alienation from the larger society, schools, and often their own families.
What are the five strategies in OJJDP’s comprehensive gang model
1) community mobilization
2) opportunties provision
3) social intervention
4) suppression
5) organizational change and development
What is community mobilization?
> involvement of local citizens, former gang related youth, local angencies and community groups
What is opportunity provision?
> a variety of educational, training, and employment programs targeting gang-involved youth
What is social intervention?
> involvement of youth-services agencies, schools, faith based organizations, police + other orgs to reach out to gang involved youth and their families
What is suppression?
> formal and informal social control, including close supervision of gang-involved youth by CJS and school-based agencies as well as grass roots groups
What is organizational change and development?
> development of polices and procedure that result in the most effective use of available resources across agencies to address the gang problem
What happened at the “Attack on Tree of Life Synagogue”
> On the morning of October 27, 2018, the tranquility of Squirrel Hill was shattered when Robert Gregory Bowers perpetrated the deadliest hate crime against Jewish citizens in the United States.
> At 9:45 a.m., Bowers entered the Tree of Life Synagogue where Shabbat morning services were underway.
> Armed with a semi-automatic rifle and a number of handguns, Bowers immediately opened fire killing two brothers who were standing next to the main entryway.
> He then began roaming through the rooms and floors of the synagogue shooting at anyone he saw.
What was the attack on the tree of Life Synagogue?
> it was a straightforward case of anti-Semitism
> in other words, it was a hate crime.
The Tree of Life Synagogue represents what? Have hate crimes been increasing?
> represents a particularly horrific example of hate crime that shocked the nation, recent years have unfortunately seen many examples of this particular form of violent crime.
> In fact, over the last several years, hate crimes have been on the rise in the U.S. according to the FBI and many other countries around the world.
What was the Murder of James Byrd Jr? What was notable about this case?
> One night in June 1998, James Byrd Jr., a 49-year-old African American, declined a ride home from a friend during a party and decided to walk home alone on Martin Luther King Boulevard in Jasper, Texas.
> A gray pickup truck driven by Shawn Berry, the manager of a local movie theater, and two other men Byrd did not know pulled up and Berry asked Byrd whether he wanted a ride.
> When Byrd climbed into the back of the truck, Berry gave him a beer.
> Byrd’s decapitated body was found the next morning.
> The brutal murder of James Byrd Jr. was the first time that the term hate crime came to the forefront of public consciousness in the United States. (THIS IS WHAT WAS NOTABLE)?
What was the Murder of Matthew Shepard?
> Matthew Shepard, a 21-year-old college student attended the University of Wyoming.
> On the evening of October 7, 1998, Russell Henderson and Aaron McKinney went to a known gay bar with the intent of targeting a gay man for robbery.
> They met Shepard there and offered him a ride home.
> Instead of taking him home, however, they took him to a remote area, tied him to a fence post, pistol-whipped him in the head to unconsciousness, and then left him there to die.
> He never regained consciousness and died four days later on October 12.
What happened after the murders of James Byrd Jr. and Matthew Shepard?
> were considered Catalysts for Modern
Hate Crime Legislation
> Hate crime statutes after the murders of Byrd and Shepard were enacted
> at the time of both Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr.’s deaths, most states did not have hate crime statutes.
> Today, 46 states and the District of Columbia have some sort of bias crime legislation.
> Generally, these statutes add additional time onto sentence lengths for those convicted of hate-motivated offenses.
What is a hate crime?
> criminal offense perpetrated because of some underlying prejudice or hatred perceived by the offender(s).
When does an ordinary crime becomes a hate crime?
> An ordinary crime becomes a hate crime when offenders select a victim because of some characteristic, such as the victim’s race or religion.
Hate crimes involve victims who are targeted for what reasons?
> Hate crimes involve victims who are targeted because of their religion, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, or any other group identity that is targeted because of bias, prejudice, and intolerance.
Does genocide share a quality with hate crimes?
> Shared quality with genocide: victim is not necessarily chosen because of who they are or what they did, but simply because they belong to a particular group.
> This type of impersonal victimization is something that hate crimes share with genocide, genocides can be considered an extreme, systematic, and collective type of hate crime.
What is the FBI definition of a hate crime?
> a hate crime, also known as a bias crime, is a criminal offense committed against a person, property, or society that is motivated, in whole or in part, by the offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity/national origin.
> As the language of the FBI definition suggests, bias crime is sometimes used as another term for hate crime.
What is the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990?
> The first major hate crime legislation passed at the federal level was called the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990.
> The law directed the attorney general to collect data “about crimes that manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity”.
What is the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act and when was it passed?
> In September 1994, Congress passed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, which amended the Hate Crime Statistics Act to include both physical and mental disabilities.
What is the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act? When was it signed and what was it expanded on?
> The most recent law enacted at the federal level against hate crimes is called the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act;
> it was signed into law by President Obama in March of 2010.
> The law expanded federal hate crime legislation to include violence based on gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, and disability in addition to the already-existing criteria based on race and religion.
What is the Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996?
> U.S. Congress enacted the Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996, which mandated the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program to begin collecting statistics on offenses motivated by bias against physical and mental disabilities in January 1997.
> The UCR collects data only on those incidents that are reported to the police.
Important to note, the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) did not start asking victims about whether they perceived they were targeted because of bias until what year?
> until 2003
At what level are hate crimes charged for?
> Hate crime charges at federal level
As with the vast majority of interpersonal violence, data from the NCVS is what compared to UCR data?
> As with the vast majority of interpersonal violence, data from the NCVS is more valid and reliable than police report data because only a fraction of victimizations are reported to police.
> For example, one analysis by the Bureau of Justice Statistics found that less than half of hate crimes (44%) are reported to law enforcement.
Reasons given for not reporting victimizations according to the NCVS?
> many victims handled it privately, or referred the matter to a non-law enforcement official such as a teacher or staff member at a school or an apartment manager.
Almost a quarter of victims, however, simply did not report because of what reason?
> because they felt that the police wouldn’t be interested or willing to respond or because they felt that it would cause more trouble for them from the perpetrator or friends of the perpetrator.
What is the NCVS’s hate crime definition>
> NCVS defines hate crimes as those incidents in which victims believe the offender selected them for victimization because of one or more of their personal characteristics, including race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and disability.
What incidents are also included in the NCVS’s definition of a hate crime?
> this definition also includes incidents in which the offender perceives the victim as belonging to or associated with a group largely identified by one of these characteristics OR perceives the victim as associating with people having certain characteristics.
What is the Percentage Distribution of 7,106 Single-Bias Incidents Reported to Law Enforcement in 2017 by Bias Type?
1) the majority is based on race/ethnicity/ancestry 59%
2) Religous 22%
3) Sexual orientation 16%
4) Gender identity + Disability 2%
5) Gender bias 0.6%
What is the Percentage Distribution of 8,437 Hate Crime Offenses Reported to Law Enforcement in 2017 By Offense Type? What should we note about this?
1) Destruction/damage/vandalism 27.6%
2) Intimidation 27.1%
3) Simple assualt 20.7%
4) Aggravtaed assault 11.7%
- UCR data and a really large sample size.
Over half (55%) of violent hate crimes reported to the NCVS were perpetrated by what kind of offenders?
> were perpetrated by known offenders.
> That is, they were acquainted with the victims and about 61% of were male.
> Violent hate crime is also more likely to involve multiple offenders than other violent crime.
Between 2011 and 2015, the most likely type of bias, according to victim’s perceptions in the NCVS data, was directed against what?
> a person’s race (48.1%), followed by ethnicity (35.4%) which includes a person’s ancestral, cultural, social, or national affiliation.
> These first two categories of bias were followed in descending order by gender, association, sexual orientation, religion, disability, and perceived characteristics.
What is lynching? What kind of violence was this?
> there are many ways in which anti-Black violence has been historically carried out, perhaps the most well-known and infamous example of such an offense is known as lynching, a type of collective violence in which a group of individuals circumvent the law and punish individuals for real or imagined crimes.
What does lynching involve?
> Initially it usually involved punishments such as whippings and tarring-and-feathering, but over time it evolved to become a much more lethal form of social control, one that typically included torture, mutilation, hanging, and burning.
Lynchings were typically carried out by what? What group was it most likely perpetrated by?
> by a lynch mob and could therefore comprise a form of collective violence.
> Lynching most commonly was perpetrated against Blacks.
What is the justice for Victims of Lynching Act of 2018?
> a law that provides for a federal sentence of life in prison for two or more people convicted of killing someone because of their actual or perceived race, color, religion, or national origin.
The origin of the term ‘lynching’ most likely comes from what?
> judge Charles Lynch, who fought against the Tories, colonists who supported the British against the revolution during the Revolutionary War.
When Congress ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, it officially abolished what? What did this start?
> officially abolished slavery, completing the process begun with President Abraham Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation.
> African Americans were finally free to participate in the economic, social, and political life of the nation.
> Unfortunately, many White Southerners resented and hated the newly won rights of their former slaves.
What is the Civil Rights Act of 1866?
> extralegal means of social control was also buttressed by a host of legislative initiatives in the Southern states known as the “Black Codes” that were intended to limit the rights of African Americans.
> Congress attempted to hamper these codes by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1866 that gave Blacks citizenship and full rights, even overcoming a presidential veto to do so.
Did the Number of hate crimes reported in Canada increase or decrease in 2018 to 2017? Is it similar to the us’s findings?
> slightly decreased in 2018 from 2017, but still the highest number since 2009.
> In Canada, the latest Statistics Canada data show similar findings to the US.
What is the Ku Klux Klan (KKK)?
> founded in 1866, its main purpose being to fight Reconstruction efforts.
What is a peculiar element of lynching?
> Another peculiar element of lynchings was the often carnival-like atmosphere, frequently accompanied murders.
> Hundreds, if not thousands, of spectators, often including children, came out to watch and even participate in lynchings.
> Spectators sometimes came from miles around to join in the festivities, and the crowd would often pose for photographs with the bodies of the victims, and these pictures would sometimes even be turned into postcards.
What kind of manifestations were lynching?
> lynchings remained potent manifestations of collective violence perpetrated outside of the boundaries of official governmental authority.
while ritualistic lynchings by hanging and burning have faded, hate-motivated killings remain what?
> remain an ever-present part of all societies.
What is the primary purpose of lynchings?
> The primary purpose of lynchings is not to seek some form of popular justice but to instill a climate of terror in marginalized populations.
What is Anti-Semitism?
> refers to derogatory speech and action targeted against Jews and relies on very old images and prejudices.
What does anti-semitism represent?
> Anti-Semitism represents the most pervasive form of religious-based hate crime.
While the majority of the anti-Semitism tracked by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) occurred in public places, a surprisingly high amount occurred in what places?
> occurred in K-12 schools and college campuses, which one would think would be largely resistant to such kinds of intolerance.
What does being familiar with stereotypes associated with the Jews cause?
> this means that when times get tough or tragedies happen, these old ideas are easily resurrected to explain what happened and why.
empirical evidence shows that immigration has had what effect on the crime rates?
> has had no effect on crime in rural communities between 1990 and 2010 and that during the same time period immigration was actually linked with lower crime rates. Immigrants had lower crime rates than native born citizens.
a new study by the Pew Research Center found that between 2007 and 2016, violent crime has been what?
> slightly decreased across areas regardless of whether the number of undocumented immigrants rose of fell in these same areas.
What is Xenophobia?
> The tendency to have contempt for foreigners or other strangers, which is particularly likely in times of economic hardship, when resources are scarce.
researchers have found that groups tend to develop much more reactive and punitive attitudes during what times?
> during uncertain economic times, periods of high crime rates, and eras of social and cultural change.
> Uncertainty and fear, in other words, tend to breed and strengthen hostility and anger against those defined as being dangerous, threatening, or different.
- these conditions are when we see increases in this type of fear/crime
although, hate crimes may not be directly linked to economic needs like many robberies, tougher economic times do increase the likelihood of what?
> increase the likelihood of hate crimes and other forms of violence.
- xenophobia is based off of this idea.
Are stereotypes enduring?
> problem with the kind of stereotypes and prejudices that lead to hate crimes is that they are remarkably enduring. In many ways they are like a forest fire that, after the flames have been doused, continues to smolder underground for a long time.
What kind fight intolerance and hatred of stereotypes? What should be noted though?
> Education, legal changes, and tolerance training can all be used to combat intolerance and hatred so that it goes underground.
> to be noted: given the right economic, social, and political conditions, those old prejudices can quickly be resurrected.
What are the reasons for the persistence of stereotypes?
- Deep-seated instinct among groups to distinguish between who is and who is not included. The tendency to separate ourselves into in-groups and out-groups is very strong.
- The elements responsible for socialization including family, school, religious organizations, and society as a whole, each play a role in creating hate.
3.Everyday acts of prejudice and bigotry are also related to acts of hate-motivated violence.
Is mob violence unique to the past?
> mob violence is not only from the distant past. A relatively common occurrence within most societies throughout history.
> in the past:
- Ancient Greek - so often – Euripides: “mobs in their emotions are much like children, subject to the same tantrums and fits of fury.”
- Rome - so many riots - emperors - games to keep mobs happy
Humans are social creatures: who need to live and work within groups- but what is frightening about groups?
> there is something fundamentally frightening about large groups of people engaging in what we perceive as mindless and excessive brutality.
> We need to trust and rely on our friends, neighbors, and fellow citizens; we want to feel safe. Mob violence, however, calls into question our security within these same groups.
Three of the most well-known forms of mob violence are what? What should be noted about these forms of collective behaviour?
> are riots, lynch mobs, and vigilante groups.
> All these are forms of collective behavior that are relatively spontaneous and unplanned, and the groups are relatively unorganized.
What is a crowd?
> A crowd is nothing more than a collection of individuals who may or may not share a common purpose, for example, a group waiting in line for a bus, standing in line at a store, or listening to a concert.
> Crowds are usually transitory (temporary) in nature and do not usually act in a unified and singular manner.
What is the continuum of mob violence from least organized to most organized?
1) Riots - least planned and most spontaneous.
2) Lynch mobs
3) Vigilante groups - most planned and least
spontaneous
What is the word mob come from?
> comes from the Latin mobile vulgus, “the movable common people” -fickleness or inconstancy of crowd
Some people may come to participate in riots and other group behavior simply because of what reasoning?
> they are bored and see in the collective action a break from routine, and a sense of excitement and novelty.
What is Sid Heal’s eight specific psychological factors that lower or remove our prohibitions against violent behaviour -facilitate individual participation in mob violence:
> Novelty
Suggestibility
Release
Stimulation
Justification
Conformity
Power
Deindividuation
What are the typologies of crows/mobs
1) Casual crowd
2) Cohesive crowd
3) Expressive crowd
4) Aggressive crowd
5) Aggressive mob
6) Expressive mob
7) Acquisitive mob
8) Escape mob
What is Sid Heal’s release factor?
> Even though an individual may not be very concerned with a specific grievance or cause, they may participate because they find in the violence and aggression a release for a more generalized hostility, anger, and/or frustration.
What is Sid Heal’s power factor?
> Mobs feel empowered by the violence and destructiveness they unleash.
> Participating in large-scale violence can confer upon somebody intoxicating feelings of control, domination, and supremacy.
What is Sid Heal’s Justification factor?
> The sense of power engendered in group destruction can also lead to feelings of righteousness and legitimacy.
What is Sid Heal’s Suggestibility factor?
> Many individuals in a mob may not be fully aware of what is going on or why, and so may be open to the answers provided by others who may appear to better know or understand the situation.
What is Sid Heal’s Stimulation factor?
> The emotions and sentiments of crowds can be infectious and individuals caught up in the group can easily find their own emotions aroused and stimulated.
What is Sid Heal’s conformity factor?
> Not only do individuals have a natural tendency to conform to the demands of a group, rioting mobs also have a tendency to attack and victimize those who resist or don’t conform, which tends to increase the pressures toward going along with the mob.
What is Sid Heal’s Deindividuation factor?
> In groups, individual identity tends to be diffused into the larger collective identity. When combined with feelings of anonymity, participants may feel released from normal constraints on their behavior.
Why do people often behave differently in crowds than they do when
they are on their own? (Describe Solon’s interpretation of Athenians and Playwright’s interpretation of Aristophanes)
- Solon, - Athenians were clever as foxes when minding their own affairs, but as soon as they congregated, they lost their wits.
- Playwright Aristophanes - fellow Athenians - reasonable old men at home and fools at assemblies.
when in a group, individuals often lose what?
> Meaning when in a group, individuals often lose their sense of self, and are driven by the movement of the majority, rather than what they truly believe is the correct course of action or their own views/intellect/morals.
What is Le Bon’s Collective behavior theory
> argued that the crowd, develops a mind of its own, and individuals become highly vulnerable and suggestible to the will of the collective group.
What did Le Bon believe about crowd behaviour?
> in Le Bon’s view, crowd behavior is essentially contagious, so if one person gets excited, angry, or violent, others will quickly follow because of the emotion elicited (anger, fear etc.).
> Easily swayed by the mood and behavior of the group, because at an unconscious level we are programmed to do so.
> Individual conscious personality disappears, replaced by the ‘collective mind’ that Le Bon’s suggested is credulous, impulsive, emotional, without moral responsibility, less intelligent than an individual’s mind, and blindly obedient to charismatic leaders who “hypnotize” and mobilize a crowd into action.
What is the Criticism of Le Bon’s and Blumer’s work?
> They simplified the actions of the mob and focused exclusively on the emotional and irrational elements of crowd behavior while downplaying the more instrumental aspects of the violence
Federal Criminal Code (US)- riots as public disturbance involving:
- An act or acts of violence by one or more persons part of an assemblage of three or more persons, which constitutes a clear present danger of damage or injury
- Threats of the commission of an act of violence by one or more persons part of an assemblage of three or more persons having the ability to execute such threats
How do fears affect crowds?
- Riots target anybody and anything - wrong
place at the wrong time. - In these situations, no one is safe.
- Seemingly rational and reasonable people -
act irrationally and unreasonably.
What is the Crime-control approach?
> This model argues that the goal of any CJ (criminal justice) agents (police, courts and corrections) should be the elimination of crime and deviance.
What is the Social group-control approach?
> This model argues that the goal is to control members of a population by maintaining their position within the lower levels of class structure (SES socio economic status).
> Maintaining the status quo/statu quo (maintaining the current state of affairs – usually social and political structure and/or values)
> A violent example of this is lynch mobs.
What is Crime-control vigilantism?
> This type of vigilantism is often associated with this form of collective violence—targeted as it is with the elimination of crime.
What is Social group–control vigilantism?
> This type of vigilantism describes groups whose goal is to keep some population group in their place, usually within the lower levels of class structure. This is the kind most closely akin to lynch mobs.
What is Regime-control vigilantism?
> This type of vigilantism concerns groups that engage in violence in an effort to control the government if it strays from an acceptable course of action and policy.
> Typically composed of middle- and upper-class elites who want to protect their prerogatives, this type of vigilante group defines its role as keeping the regime in check.
What is a specific example of a vigilante group?
> This is a group founded in 1979 in the Bronx, New York and is still active in a number of communities. Identified by their red berets, its members patrol the subways, streets, and neighborhoods in order to prevent crime and have sometimes been labeled vigilantes by police.
> Nevertheless, new Guardian Angels chapters continue to thrive and operate in many communities in the United States and around the world.
Overall, what is a vigilante group? What two components need to be noted about this kind of group?
- Organized extralegal movement - participants take the law into their own hands
- Protect status quo
- Their own brand of law and justice to outlaws
threatening established social order - Efforts made to establish law in lawless setting (New Frontier)
- Not same as lynching, - get around established law
DEFINING TERRORISM IS DIFFICULT TO DEFINE FOR SEVERAL REASONS:
- VARIED BEHAVIOR MOTIVATED BY VARIOUS AGENDAS
- CONTINUOUSLY EVOLVING PHENOMENON
- DEFINITION DEPENDS ON PERSPECTIVE
What is the first common theme for terrorism?
> TERRORISM IS A VIOLENT ACTIVITY.
> It is about destruction and harm, whether of people or property or both.
> Terrorists have chosen violence as the preferred method of accomplishing their goals.
> While various social, political, economic, and cultural avenues are available to help bring about change, terrorists instead have chosen violence
What is the second theme of terrorism?
> violence used is instrumental, in that it is a ‘means to an end’.
> there is purpose and reason to it.
> In this sense, at least, it is ‘rational’ in that it is an attempt to carry out some ‘goal’. (deliberate)
> This ‘goal’ of course can be to inflict suffering, torture and loss on other human beings.
> Terrorists engage in extreme acts of violence because they perceive it will help them achieve some goal.
What is the third theme of terrorism?
> TERRORISM USUALLY TARGETS DEFENSELESS
VICTIMS.
> CIVILIAN AND NONCOMBATANT TARGETS ARE THE MOST COMMON VICTIMS.
- ‘SOFT TARGETS’.
- STATUS AS INNOCENTS HEIGHTENS DRAMATIC IMPACT OF THE VIOLENCE
What are soft targets?
> ‘Soft Targets’ are innocents - child, women, unarmed men. They are targeted because their vulnerability heightens the level of ‘terror’ the attacks implement. It lends to the idea that ‘no where is safe’. Which is one goal of terrorists.
Breakdown the TERRORIST ATTACKS BY TYPE OF
TARGET in 2014:
1) Private Citizens & property 47%
2) Police 19%
3) Other 11% -
4) Military 8%
5) Police 18%
6) Business 6%
7) Government 6%
8) Religous
What is the purpose of terrorism?
> This is important because terrorist groups want to create a climate of fear within a society.
> The indiscriminate nature of the attacks coupled with civilian targets exacerbates fear and a sense of helplessness because the next attack is unpredictable.
- those that are frightened are easier to control
- projecting stregnth is not based on actual capabilities
Is terrorism systematic?
> An isolated event, though terrifying, is not necessarily considered terrorism. Instead, terrorism is a recurring phenomenon.
> Political scientists suggest that the first World Trade Center attack was an act of terrorism because it was perpetrated by individuals who have since perpetrated other attacks against the United States.
What is State-perpetrated terrorism?
> Governments engage in terrorism in order to suppress dissent, quash a social or political movement, or intimidate a population.
> This is sometimes termed authorized terror, repressive terror, or even enforcement terror.
Overlap between goals and methods of TERRORISM AND GUERILLA WARFARE?
1.Even though the words are sometimes used synonymously in the media, terrorism and guerrilla warfare are not the same thing, even though there may be some overlap between their goals and methods.
2.The term guerrilla literally means “little war”.
3.Guerrilla forces sometimes use terror tactics in their military campaigns, and terrorist groups may organize into military-style units and take land.
4.Government forces also may resort to repressive terrorism to deprive guerrilla forces of support.
Guerrilla war—which is also sometimes called low-intensity warfare or insurgency warfare—is usually different from terrorism because it involves what ?
> it involves larger, military-style forces that tend to attack the military forces of their enemy and often seek to hold and control territory.
What is GUERRILLA warfare?
- LOW INTENSITY WARFARE
- INSURGENCY WARFARE
TERRORISM AND GUERILLA
WARFARE - what are some more differences?
- TERRORIST GROUPS TEND TO BE SMALLER
- USE TERROR TACTICS IN THEIR MILITARY
CAMPAIGNS. - TERRORIST GROUPS MAY ORGANIZE IN MILITARY STYLE
UNITS.
HOW FREQUENT ARE TERRORIST
ACTS?
> Here, we see a large decrease in the amount of terrorist acts in the West (here the United States shown) over a decade period.
> Do keep in mind generally speaking, that we saw decreases in almost all types of crime after the mid-1990’s.
- highest in 1995.
> Decreases in all type of violence at this time so it is not suprising that there was a decrease in terrorism as well
IS THERE A TYPICAL PROFILE OF SOMEONE WHO BECOMES A TERRORIST?
> Research indicates that the majority of terrorists do not suffer from psychological problems.
> Some believe, for example, that terrorists suffer from a narcissistic personality disorder that renders them somewhat sociopathic, arrogant, and without care or concern for others.
> Other researchers have borrowed from Erikson’s ideas about the ways in which individual identity is created and suggest that terrorists adopt a negative identity. Because of disappointments and rejection, these individuals come to embrace destructive forces as a way to express their anger and frustration.
What are Factors involved in terrorism?
> To better understand terrorism, we have to take into account psychological, social, political, religious, and cultural factors.
We find that many rank-and-file members join for a mix of reasons, such as:
1.The most common element involves belief.
2.Participation in terrorist activity, may be seen as an expression of faith by some, who are also able to materially benefit their families.
3.The desire for adventure and the prestige and status of belonging to a violent group are significant factors.
Can people become enticed by terrorism?
> Young men and women who grow up in these communities where terrorists are celebrated and become heroes may be enticed by the idea of participating in terrorism.
> Additionally, for many young people who feel powerless in their own lives, membership in a terrorist organization can provide a sense of power and mastery
Do terrorists come from improvised backgrounds?
> Many of the lower-level rank-and-file young people who are vulnerable to the allure of terrorist groups do. Structural disadvantage and poverty increase feelings of oppression, despair, and hopelessness.
What is a suicide bomber?
> specific kind of bombing attack that has received a great deal of attention in recent years is the suicide bombing.
> A suicide bomber is a terrorist who carries out an attack understanding that he or she will be killed in the explosion.
> Although suicide bombings generally represent less than 5% of all terrorist attacks, these attacks generally account for nearly half of all fatalities.
Are suicide bombers a new phenomenon?
> Throughout history, men and women have been willing to sacrifice their lives in the service of a cause or their faith. By sacrificing their lives, they hoped to make the cost of victory so expensive in lives.
What is the the most common type of method of attack by terrorists?
1) Bombing/explosion 8802
2) Armed assault 4435
3) Assassination 1403 + kidnapping/hostage taking 1403 as well
4) Facility/infastructure 984
5) Unknown 817
6) Other 188
7) Hijacking 48
8) Unarmed assault 47
What are the key recommendations of the UN:
1.Address the conditions that are conducive to the spread of terrorism, such as dehumanization of the victims of terrorism; violations of human rights; ethnic, national, and religious discrimination; political exclusion; and socioeconomic marginalization.
2.A related strategy includes ensuring the promotion and protection of the human rights of all people, “recognizing that effective counter-terrorism measures and the protection of human rights are not conflicting goals.”
3.The other strategies include:
> a.Drafting legislation making it illegal to fund terrorist organizations.
> b.Increasing communication across member states about terrorist activities.
> c.Ensuring the apprehension and prosecution of perpetrators of terrorist acts.
> d.Encouraging strategies include efforts to prevent and combat terrorism, which include many recommendations to member states, including cooperation to improve border and customs controls, among other things.
The mission of DHS (in the U.S.) includes:
> preventing terrorism and enhancing security, managing US borders, administering immigration laws, securing cyberspace, and ensuring disaster resilience.
Are we winning the war on terror?
> Scholars and policy analysts who study the issue appear to agree that terrorism in all its current forms will not disappear anytime soon.
> Many also agree that the first strategy of ensuring the human rights of all people across the globe, as detailed by the UN, would likely be the most effective strategy in defeating terrorism.
What is the most lethal form of collective political violence?
> Genocide
Who coined the term genocide and why did they invent the term?
> Coined by Raphael Lemkin
> He did not believe that other preexisting terms, such as mass murder or massacre, fully captured what the Nazis were doing.
What is the origin of the word genocide? As a result, what does that mean?
> Greek genos, which means race or tribe, and the Latin cide, which translates as killing.
> The term genocide therefore refers to the killing of a race or tribe.
Why is defining genocide so difficult?
Misuse of the word
There is often an overlap between genocide and Human rights violations and war crimes
Selective application of the term
Vague terminology (in whole or part)
Variation (in intent, scale, method, and context).
Is genocide a form of destructive violence?
> Worst possible type of destructive violence
How is genocide a powerful and symbolic word?
> a powerful and symbolic word that people have come to rely on it when trying to strongly condemn or call attention to some situation or policy.
Sometimes it is hard to distinguish between genocide and related types of crimes, such as human rights violations and other war crimes: provide 2 reasons for this difficulty:
1.Genocide, for example, typically happens during the middle of an armed conflict, such as a civil war, and it is sometimes hard to distinguish between massacres that are considered war crimes and others that might better be understood as genocide.
2.Torture and medical experimentation, for example, are specifically listed as war crimes, yet during the Holocaust various kinds of experiments were performed on unwilling victims, the same victims who were sent en masse to be killed in gas chambers.
How is the term genocide used differently and applied selectively
> Politicians, social commentators, and even scholars use the term differently and apply the definition selectively, depending on the nature and politics of the situation.
When did the general assembly of the United Nations approved the Genocide Convention? What did this do?
> On April 9, 1948
which defined genocide as a crime under international law.
What is the UN definition for genocide?
> Any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group:
> Killing members of the group
Causing serious bodily or mental harm to
members of the group
Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical
destruction in whole or in part
Imposing measures to prevent births within the
group
Forcibly transferring children of the group to
another group
What are some common Characteristics of
Genocide?
> perpetrated by the state
Planned,
systematic
ongoing attempts
victims are chosen because of their identity
How is vulnerability a factor in genocide?
Eliminates a real or imagined threat
Spreads terror among enemies
Acquires economic wealth
Implement belief, theory, or ideology
What was the deadliest genocide?
> Even though there have been more than 40 examples of genocide since 1945, it is the Holocaust that remains the preeminent example of genocide. Building on a long history of anti-Semitism in Europe, the Nazis and their supporters had long scapegoated the Jews for many of Germany’s problems.
What two groups in Rwanda have commit genocide?
> Tutsi and the Hutu: A former Belgian colony and one of the most densely populated nations of Africa, Rwanda is home to two major ethnic groups: the Tutsi and the Hutu.
What is Stalin’s terror
> Stalin’s Great Terror wracked the Soviet Union in the 1930s and which resulted in the death of around 20 million people, the extermination of various Indigenous peoples in Central and South America, and Bosnia’s experience with ethnic cleansing after Yugoslavia fell apart at the end of the cold war.
What are developmental genocides? What group does this happen to most?
> are those in which the targeted groups are seen as an impediment to the colonization and/or exploitation of a given geographic area.
> This happens most often against indigenous peoples who may be perceived as being in the way of progress.
What is a Despotic genocides?
> on the other hand, involve situations in which a government uses genocide as a weapon against rivals for political power.
> This kind of genocide may often be found in revolutionary situations where a new group has achieved power and works to eliminate any opposition to its authoritarian rule.
What is an Ideological genocide?
> in contrast, refers to the attempted destruction of a population because of a belief system.
> At some level, all genocides are ideological
> the perfect and unattainable society.
What is a Retributive genocides? What genocide is the most reflective of this?
> The last category of Helen Fein’s typology concerns retributive genocides.
> These are genocides perpetrated by one group against another in a struggle for political and social power.
> In contrast to despotic genocide, where power has already been taken and the enemies are often imaginary, this particular class of genocide concerns an ongoing struggle.
> The Rwandan genocide is illustrative of this type.
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in South West Africa:
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> German military (perps)
Hereros (victims)
60,000 death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Turkey
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1915–1923
Turkish military and police (perps)
Armenians (victims)
1 million - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in the soviet union
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1932–1933
Soviet police (perps)
Ukrainians (victims)
3–7 million - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Nazi-occupied Europe
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1941–1945
Nazis and collaborators (perps)
Jews, Gypsies, Slavs, homosexuals (vics)
21 million - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Indonesia
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1965–1966
Indonesian military and police (perps)
Indonesian Communists (vics)
500,000 - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Guatemala
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1968–1993
Guatemalan military and police (perps)
Mayans (vics)
200,000 - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Bangladesh
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1971
Pakistani military (perps)
Bengalis (vics)
1–3 million - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Burundi
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1972
Tutsi military, police, and paramilitaries (perps)
Hutu (Vics)
100,000–150,000 - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in East Timor
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1975–1999
Indonesian military (perps)
East Timorese (vics)
200,000 - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Cambodia
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1975–1979
Khmer Rouge (perps)
Ethnic Chinese, Ethnic Vietnamese, Ethnic Chams, Buddhist Monks, Educated Classes
1–2 million - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Iraq
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1988
Iraqi military (perps)
Kurds (vics)
500,000–100,000 - death count
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Bosnia
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1992–1995
Bosnian Serbs (perps)
Bosnian Muslims (vics)
250,000 - death count.
What was the following information for the genocide that took place in Rwanda
- the year
- who the perps were
- who the victims were
- and the death count
> 1994
Hutu military, police, and
paramilitaries (perps)
Tutsis (vics)
800,000 - death count
What are Four Motivators for Genocide?
Developmental: impediment to colonization and/or exploitation of area
Despotic: government - genocide as a weapon against political rivals
Ideological: attempted destruction of population because of belief system
Retributive: war against another - for political and social power
List the typologies for genocides from most lethal to the most permissive:
1) Genocidal Society
2) Deportation or Incarceration Society
3) Torture Society
4) Harassment Society
5) Traditional Shame Society
6) Guilt Society
7) Tolerant Society
8) Permissive Society
What are almost exclusively all genocides perpetrated by?
> Perpetrated almost exclusively by totalitarian states
What are some political leaders that are considered mega murderers? What is their leadership based on?
Stalin’s Soviet Union
Mao’s China
Hitler’s Germany
> The Government leadership is based on fear and coercion of its citizens.
What enables genocide? What does this factor create?
> War
it creates a universe of obligation, heightened feelings of marginalization
What is a controversial term associated with genocide?
> “Banality of evil” means essentially (“motivated by a sort of stupidity which was wholly unexceptional”)
What are the 9 primary motivations for participations in genocide?
Ideological
Bigoted
Violent
Fearful
Careerist
Materialist
Disciplined
Comradely
Bureaucratic
Why are victims selected in genocide?
> Selected for extermination - fall into stigmatized category
> Relatively powerless – political, social
marginalization
minority groups
> have long histories of persecution, stigma
What is one reason that people don’t stand up to genocide
> built-in predisposition to defer to authority figures, and the government is one of the most powerful of authority figures.
> When a regime tells a population that a certain group represents a threat and that segregating and/or killing its members is necessary, many people are predisposed to believe it, since it is their government that is communicating this message.
What is another reason that people don’t stand up to genocide?
> most people believe that there is nothing that can be done, that they are too powerless to prevent and/or stop the violence.
> These feelings of helplessness are often combined with large amounts of fear.
> Resisting or questioning the genocidal policies of a government intent on mass murder can carry serious risks of being ostracized and imprisoned at best and physical harm and death at worst.
How do international communities react to genocide?
> A Bystander: We also need to recognize that the international community often acts as a bystander to genocide as well.
> Recent examples of genocides have been perpetrated with the full knowledge of the world community.
> Governments may plead ignorance, but they usually know full well what is happening and for various reasons are either unwilling or unable to prevent the killing or intervene effectively.
What is the Importance of international law when talking about genocide?
> the role of international law in combating genocide and holding those who perpetrate it accountable.
Growing power of international human rights law has reflected what?
> this increase is reflected in the establishment of international legal venues where perpetrators can be held accountable.
> These courts reflect an attempt to address genocide and other mass atrocity crimes through legal measures within the international community.
Are there limitations on genocide or war crimes?
> there is no statute of limitations on genocide or war crimes, so indicted individuals may be arrested years after the offenses took place.
Is there a cure for violence?
> No “silver bullet” or “cure” for violence.
Combined, murder, rape, assault, and robbery cost the US what annually? How about for Canadians?
> over $42 billion US annually in medical expenses, law enforcement, courts, and correctional facility expenses and lost earnings.
> – $13 billion a year for Canadians (2014)
> $137 dollars - every American
Aside from the financial costs, what does violence cost to people and what are these costs?
> Pain, suffering, and loss of life quality
This doesn’t include intangibles, such as pain, suffering, and a loss of life quality.
What can we do about violence?
> We as individuals and as communities can rethink our responses to the enduring problem of violence.
1) What percentage of people fear becoming a victim when they are traveling?
2) What percentage of people fear being attacked when they are out alone at night?
3) What percentage of people fear violence even when they are at home?
4) As a result, what do people do out of fear of violence?
- 72% - fear becoming a victim when traveling.
– 61% fear being attacked when out alone at night
– 60% fear even at home.
– Less social, communal – don’t see safe, just place.
When is policy enacted for violence?
> policy is only enacted when a causal effect on outcome is determined, usually conducted via an RCT.
Criminal Justice Response
to Violence - how many programs are there?
> 222 programs - violence prevention
54 programs - proven effective
> Majority of the programs are not directly related to violence prevention instead they focus on factors related to violence such as substance abuse
Problem-solving or problem-oriented policing (also known as ‘POP’) generally focuses efforts on what?
> law enforcement efforts on proactively solving “problems” related to crime rather than reactively responding to calls for service after a crime has already occurred.
What is the gold of POP?
> The goal of such an orientation for law enforcement agencies (generally the police) is to identify and resolve underlying problems related to crime.
What does the SARA acronym stand for?
– Scanning, police identifying, prioritizing problems - may be
causing crime, disorder.
– Analysis, policy analyzing problem - appropriate responses.
– Response, police implement interventions to solve problem(s).
– Assessment, whether intervention worked.
What is the SARA model used for?
> ‘SARA’ is a method of analysis for police. It is essentially a step-by-step process to dealing with crime, including violent crime in society.
What models/programs are not useful for reducing violence?
> Deterrence models (for example: longer, harsher prison sentences, even the death penalty) and continued criminal justice interventions are not effective at reducing violence.
In 2014, how many people were under local correctional supervision in the US? How many facilities have been developed as a result?
> 2014, 6,851,000 people under federal, state, and local correctional supervision in US.
> 15,000 in Federal facilities (2013) increased 75% in last decade
What are half of the inmates in state prison serving time for? Overall, why is reentry into society so difficult for inmates?
– State prisons - half of inmates serving time for violent crime.
– Extremely difficult - released from prison with a criminal record
What kind of sentence caused overcrowding?
> – Mandatory minimum sentencing (MMS) - caused prison overcrowding.
What re-entry program only had modest effects on recidivism?
> – SVORI - reentry programs - only modest effects on recidivism
– Public health approach differs from criminal justice - how so ?
– Examines factors related to violence
– Epidemiological approach - causes
What are the Fundamentals of a Public Health Approach?
- Rely on community-based methods to identify root causes and sources of the problem.
- Generate data to identify patterns of risk and protective factors.
- Identify and monitor trends in the frequency and nature of risk factors.
- Implement multilevel community interventions grounded in empirical data designed to reduce or eliminate risk factors or strengthen protective factors.
- Evaluate and monitor the effectiveness of intervention strategies, and revise tactics accordingly.
- Educate the public about the problems and issues as well as what has been shown to be effective for intervention
What are the steps to the Public Health Model of
Violence Prevention?
1) define the problem
2) identify risk and protective factors
3) develop and test prevention strategies
4) Assure widespread adoption
Fundamental Violence Prevention Measures - what are the levels?
> Primary prevention and population outreach
– Reducing inequality
– Decrease/eliminate violent images - media, entertainment
> Secondary prevention
– Identify high-risk youth
– Example: after-school activities
> Tertiary prevention
– Intervene in lives of those already affected
