Chapter 8 Flashcards
What as an infamous example of a hate crime?
> Robert Gregory Bowers perpetrated the deadliest hate crime against Jewish citizens in the United States.
> Bowers entered the Tree of Life Synagogue where Shabbat morning services were underway. Armed with a semiautomatic rifle and a number of handguns, Bowers immediately opened fire, shooting at anyone he saw.
> Bowers left eleven individuals dead, another seven wounded,
> was prompted by anti-Semitism.
What has been a feature of anti-semitism? What are two prominient theory of this feature?
> Conspiracy theories such as:
1) white genocide theory that suggests white Americans and western civilization are being destroyed through immigration, and
2) migrant caravans heading to the United States from Central America in 2018 were actually part of a Jewish plot aimed at undermining and weakening the United States.
Have hate crimes been increasing?
> hate crimes have been on the rise in the United States, according to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
Are hate crimes interconnected with other forms of violence?
> Yes
> previous hate-filled violence can inspire further violence
> example - mass shootings (Roof, a 21-year-old white supremacist from South Carolina, went to a historic Black church in Charleston, South Carolina, and killed nine members of the congregation during a prayer service interconnected as it was leading to the rally and the violence in Charlottesville)
- Were hate crimes prosecuted the same way back then?
- What crime would they usually be prosecuted?
- What is a specific case example?
> were typically prosecuted as ordinary offenses based on the underlying behavior rather than the motivating element of bias or hatred of a group.
> prosecuted for civil rights violations, a federal crime since 1871, when congress passed the Civil Rights Act.
> the 1994 prosecution of four Los Angeles Police Department officers who were caught on video tape beating Black motorist Rodney King (recieved this sentence)
- What is the the Anti-Defamation League (ADL)?
- What did they create a successful lobbying campaign for?
- What organizations assisted them?
- Overall, what were they all campagining to get laws for and what has that term since been renamed?
- is an organization founded to fight anti-Semitism and other forms of prejudice,
- began a successful lobbying campaign to pass hate crime legislation based on a model statute that they developed.
- Assisted by other organizations such as the Southern Poverty Law Center, the National Institute for Prejudice and Violence, and the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force,
- to get laws against what they first termed ethnic intimidation (later renamed bias-motivated crime) enacted into law.
What term did the ADL coin?
> they first termed ethnic intimidation (later renamed bias-motivated crime)
What was the work of the ADL instrumental for?
> Was instrumental in the adoption of hate crime laws for many states and the federal government.
What two cases have come to be synonymous with modern American hate crime?
> the James Byrd case in 1998 and the killing of Matthew Shepard that same year.
What is the case of James Byrd?
> James Byrd Jr., a 49-year-old African American, declined a ride home from a friend during a party and decided to walk home alone on Martin Luther King Boulevard in Jasper, Texas.
> A gray pickup truck driven by Shawn Berry, the 23-year-old manager of a local movie theater, and two other men Byrd did not know pulled up.
> He and two other men, Bill King and Russell Brewer, had picked Byrd up on Martin Luther King Boulevard; they then drove him up to Huff Creek Road, beat him up in a clearing, spray-painted his face black, and then dragged him with a logging chain tied to his ankles about three miles before they dumped his body at the side of the road. Byrd’s head and arm had been cut off when his body was pulled over a sharp metal culvert.
How did the town of Jasper, specifically those from African American communities show support for James Byrd?
> To demonstrate their support, thousands wore yellow ribbons, and at Byrd’s funeral, speeches about reconciliation and healing were given by dignitaries, including Jesse Jackson and Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison, and a letter from then–President Bill Clinton was read.
When was the first time that the term hate crime came to the forefront of public consciousness in the United States? (what crime?)
> The brutal murder of James Byrd Jr.
What was the case of Matthew Shepard?
> was a 21-year-old college student who attended the University of Wyoming.
> On the evening of October 7, 1998, Russell Henderson and Aaron McKinney went to a known gay bar with the intent of targeting a gay man for robbery.
> They met Shepard there and offered him a ride home.
> Instead of taking him home, however, they took him to a remote area, tied him to a fence post, pistol-whipped him in the head to unconsciousness, and left him there to die.
> Shepard was found more than 18 hours later by a cyclist.
> He never regained consciousness and died four days later on October 12.
At the time of both Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr.’s deaths, most states did not have hate crime statutes. Today, how many states have these statues? What are the exceptions?
ARKNS,GRGA, SCLINA, WYOM
> 46 states and the District of Columbia have some sort of bias crime legislation, the exceptions being Arkansas, Georgia, South Carolina, and Wyoming.
Generally, these statutes add additional time onto sentence lengths for those convicted of hate-motivated offenses. For example, after the Tree of Life Synagogue mass murders, federal prosecutors charged Robert Bowers with many crimes, including the following:
> 11 counts of obstruction of free exercise of religious beliefs resulting in death;
> 11 counts of use and discharge of a firearm to commit murder during and in relation to a crime of violence;
> 2 counts of obstruction of free exercise of religious beliefs involving an attempt to kill and use of a dangerous weapon and resulting in bodily injury;
> 11 counts of use and discharge of a firearm during and in relation to a crime of violence;
> 8 counts of obstruction of free exercise of religious beliefs involving an attempt to kill and use of a dangerous weapon, and resulting in bodily injury to a public safety officer; and
> 1 count of obstruction of free exercise of religious beliefs involving use of a dangerous weapon and resulting in bodily injury to a public safety officer.29
Similar to all crime statutes, however, there is a great deal of variability in how and when offenses are considered:
> a hate crime
A hate crime is not a specific kind of offense but is instead considered:
> an existing offense that is perpetrated because of some underlying prejudice or hatred perceived by the offender(s)
When is an “ordinary crime” considered a hate crime? In hate crimes, what do prosecuters have to prove?
> an ordinary crime becomes a hate crime when offenders select a victim because of some characteristic, such as the victim’s race or religion.
> prosecutors must typically demonstrate that a victim is targeted because of their group affiliation.
With respect to hate crimes, the specific victim is not necessarily chosen because of who they are or what they did but simply because of what?
> they belong to a particular group.
What quality do hate crimes share with genocide?
> quality of impersonal victimization is something that hate crimes share with genocide
> aka they simply belong to a particular group - not because of who they are or what they did
Can genocides be considered a hate crime?
> genocides can be considered an extreme, systematic, and collective type of hate crime.
What is the legal and specific definiton of a hate crime as provided by the FBI?
> A hate crime, also known as a bias crime, is a criminal offense committed against a person, property, or society that is motivated, in whole or in part, by the offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity/national origin.
What are some characteristics that statues may include in their definition of a hate crime?
A,G, PA, TRNS, GI
> age, gender, political affiliation, and transgender status or gender identity.
What is another term that is used to describe a hate crime?
> As the language of the FBI definition suggests, bias crime is sometimes used as another term for hate crime.
The first major hate crime legislation passed at the federal level was what?
> the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990.
What is the purpose of the Hate Crime Stats Act of 1990?
> the law directed the attorney general to collect data “about crimes that manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity
What act amended the Hate Crime Stats Act of 1990? What did this amendement include?
> In September 1994, Congress passed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act,
which amended the Hate Crime Statistics Act to include both physical and mental disabilities.
The most recent law enacted at the federal level against hate crimes is what?
> the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act; it was signed into law by President Obama in March 2010.
What was the purpose of the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act? What acts did it include in its expansion?
> The law expanded federal hate crime legislation
got it to include violence based on gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, and disability in addition to the existing criteria based on race and religion.
What level are offenders prosecuted for hate crimes?
> at state level
> but, hate crime charges are also brought against offenders at the federal level (example the federal conviction and sentencing of Dylann Roof)
Are hate crime prosecutions successful in being made for victimizations that are typically thought as not motivated by hate? If so, what is a specific case?
> yes- are successfully being made for victimizations not typically thought of as motivated by hate.
> For example, on September 20, 2012, Samuel Mullet Sr., a leader of a so-called renegade Amish sect, and 15 of his followers were convicted in federal court of hate crimes for terrorizing another Amish community in eastern Ohio by forcefully shaving the beards of men and cutting the hair of both men and women.
Because the category of hate crimes is relatively new, collecting data on their prevalence is also relatively recent. In 1996, the U.S. Congress enacted what act to change this?
> In 1996, the U.S. Congress enacted the Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996, which mandated the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program to begin collecting statistics on offenses motivated by bias against physical and mental disabilities in January 1997.
What is important to note about UCR data in general?
> it is only based on crimes that are reported to the police.
The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) did not start asking victims about whether they perceived they were targeted because of bias until what year?
> 2003
As with the vast majority of interpersonal violence, data from the NCVS is what compared to UCR data? One analysis by the Bureau of Justice Statistics found that what percentage of hate crimes are reported to law enforcement?
> data from the NCVS is more valid and reliable than police report data because only a fraction of victimizations are reported to police
> For example, one analysis by the Bureau of Justice Statistics found that less than half of hate crimes (44%) are reported to law enforcement.
In the the breakdown of 7,106 single-bias crime incidents reported to the police in 2017 by the type of bias- the largest percentage of these crimes were based on what? What were the least common reports?
G: R/E-B, RB, SOB. L: D, GI, GB.
> were based on racial and ethnic bias, followed by both religious and sexual orientation bias.
> The least common types of hate crime reported to law enforcement concern disabilities, gender identity, and gender bias.
A particular criminal incident may involve multiple offenses - of the 7,106 incidents in 2017, there were 8,437 specific offenses reported.
1. When broken down by type of offense, what was the largest category? What were most of the hate crimes reported to police considered?
2. according to the FBI, of the 8,437 offenses reported, what percentage were crimes against people and what percentage was crime against property?
3. Of the interpersonal offences that too place, most consisted of what type of offence and what was that followed by?
> the single largest category reported to police in 2017 were property offenses (27.6%) and most of the hate crimes reported to the police involved violent offenses.
> Specifically, according to the FBI, of the 8,437 offenses reported, just over 60% were crimes against people, while 36.9% were crimes against property.
> Of those interpersonal offenses, most consisted of intimidation, followed by simple assault.
To understand why some hate crimes are not reported to police, the NCVS asks victims why they did not report their victimizations. The reasons given for not reporting were:
> that many victims handled it privately
referred the matter to a non-law enforcement official
> Almost a quarter of victims, however, simply did not report because they felt that the police wouldn’t be interested or willing to respond / because they felt that it would cause more trouble for them from the perpetrator or friends of the perpetrator.
How does the NCVS define hate crimes?
> incidents in which victims believe the offender selected them for victimization because of one or more of their personal characteristics, including race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and disability.
What incidents does the NCVS also include in their definition of hate crime?
> incidents in which the offender perceives the victim as belonging to or associated with a group largely identified by one of these characteristics or perceives the victim as associating with people having certain characteristics.
Before a crime is classified as hate related, corroborating evidence of hate motivation must also be found to have been present at the time of the incident, including at least one of the following:
> The offender used derogatory language.
> The offender left hate symbols.
> The police confirmed that a hate crime had taken place.
Based on the three forms of evidence that classify a crime as hate related, why were the majority of cases believed to be hate related? What percentage was assocaited with this form of evidence compared to the other three?
> the vast majority of cases were believed to be hate crimes because of the use of derogatory language (98.7%).
How many hate crimes occurred in 2015? How many were considered violent crimes and how many were considered property offenses?
> The most recent data available indicate that there were 207,880 hate crimes in 2015, of which 192,020 were violent crimes and 14,160 were property offenses
The most common form of violent hate crimes were what? What followed this one?
> The most common form of violent hate crimes were simple assaults (61.6%), followed by aggravated assault (17.7%).
For property offenses, the most common type of hate crime consisted of:
> thefts
What percentage of of violent hate crimes reported to the NCVS were perpetrated by known offenders? How many were male?
> 55%
> and about 61% of offenders were male.
What is one factor that hate crimes are more likely to involve what and why is that?
> Violent hate crime is also more likely to involve multiple offenders than other violent crimes?
> people will often engage in behavior in a group they would not otherwise engage in if alone.
Between 2011 and 2015, the most likely type of bias, according to victims’ perceptions in the NCVS data, was directed against what? What followed?
> was directed against a person’s race (48.1%), followed by ethnicity (35.4%), which includes a person’s ancestral, cultural, social, or national affiliation
- What race tends to be the most frequent target of racially motivated hate crimes?
- People of what religion is the most common victims of religiously based attacks?
> african americans
those percieved as jewish
Americans. While there are many ways in which anti-Black violence has been historically carried out, perhaps the most well-known and infamous example of such an offense is known as:
> lynching
- What kind of violence is lynching?
- Is it lethal in nature?
- What punishements does it involve?
- Over time, what did it evolve to?
- What are the new punishments?
- How are lynchings typically carried out?
- Lynching is a type of collective violence in which a group of individuals circumvent the law and punish individuals for real or imagined crimes.
- Initially nonlethal in nature,
- it usually involved punishments such as whippings and tarring and feathering,
- over time, it evolved to become a much more lethal form of social control—one that typically included torture, mutilation, hanging, and burning.
- Lynchings were typically carried out by a lynch mob and could therefore comprise a form of collective violence
On what date did the U.S. Senate unanimously approved legislation defining lynching as a federally prohibited hate crime?
> December 18, 2018, after almost 100 years of failing to pass similar measures
What legislation federally prohibited lynching as a hate crime?
> The law, which is called the Justice for Victims of Lynching Act of 2018, provides a federal sentence of life in prison for two or more people convicted of killing someone because of their actual or perceived race, color, religion, or national origin.
the origin of the term lynching most likely comes from who?
> most likely comes from Judge Charles Lynch, who fought against the Tories during the Revolutionary War.
> This type of violence soon became known as Lynch’s law, later shortened to Lynch law, and then still later to the verb lynching.
After the revolution, lynching began appearing on the frontier as the newly formed nation began its inexorable expansion westward, but in character and tone, lynching remained what?
> remained largely unchanged and was a relatively infrequent occurrence.
Was lynching used against black people during the revolution?
> Lynching at this time, it should be noted, was rarely perpetrated against Blacks but was instead perpetrated against various other groups that were perceived as threatening some established order.
Was lynching used against slaves? When did it change?
> There was no need to lynch slaves, since the laws and customs of slaveholding states and territories provided many legal mechanisms intended to keep Blacks in their place and under control.
> This all changed, however, after the end of the Civil War and the beginning of Reconstruction (abolishment of slavery)
> The conclusion of the war and the subsequent abolition of slavery unleashed an unprecedented wave of extralegal violence.
In what year did General Robert E. Lee surrender to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox courthouse and ended the American Civil War?
> April 9th 1965
What year was slavery abolished?
> in December of 1965, Congress ratified the Thirteenth Amendment and officially abolished slavery, completing the process begun with President Abraham Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation.
Lynching, then, was a way for White Southerners to do what? What was it then considered?
> was a way for White Southerners to reassert control over the African American population—in other words, it was a tool for protecting certain traditional values that placed Blacks in a subordinate role to Whites.
> considered an extralegal means of social control
Lynching as an extralegal means of social control was strengthened by what?
> by a host of legislative initiatives in the Southern states known as the “Black Codes” that were intended to limit the rights of African Americans.
How did Congress reduce the “black codes” that were limiting the rights of african americans?
> Congress attempted to hamper these codes by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1866 that gave African Americans citizenship and full rights—even overcoming a presidential veto to do so.
Although there were many organized groups that fought to retain White supremacy during this time, which groups is well known? (When was it founded and what is it known for?)
> the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is probably the most well-known.
> The KKK was founded in 1866, its main purpose being to fight Reconstruction efforts.
As a tool for maintaining social control, lynchings in U.S. history were not isolated incidents- what did Stewart Tolnay and E. M. Beck refer to these years as? How many people did they find to be lynched during this time period?
> have referred to these years in U.S. history as the “Lynching Era.”
> Tolnay and Beck found that there were 2,805 people lynched between 1882 and 1930 in ten Southern states
When examining the patterns of lynchings in the South, we find that, up until World War I, most lynchings of African Americans were concentrated in the areas in which what occured?
> cotton was a dominant crop
> In fact, the number of lynchings at any given time has been found to be influenced by fluctuations in the price of cotton.
In many ways, then, we can see lynching as operating on a number of different levels - what does this mean?
> One of the primary purposes was to strike fear into the hearts of Blacks in the post-Reconstruction period as they were attempting to integrate into White society
> Lynchings helped intimidate the Black population and made them easier to control within the labor force.
> helped to discourage African Americans from challenging the status quo of White privilege more generally
> lacks were more likely to be scapegoated for the problems and economic misfortunes of Whites
he victims of lynchings were almost always portrayed as what?
> portrayed as dangerous and brutish offenders who had called down the righteous wrath of the community by their actions
What was a particularly potent symbol and was often used to justify violence against African American males?
> The image of Black men defiling White women
Some may be tempted to argue that lynchings were simply a form of:
> were simply a form of popular justice—lynch mobs were simply making sure that justice was served in cases where a crime had been committed.
** But this promise was impossible to justify since the majority of lynching victims were taken from jails or some other form of law enforcement authority, as such, most victims were already facing legal sanctions in some form or another, even though many victims had not been tried or convicted of an offense.
a significant number of lynchings involved more than a mere hanging; many involved:
> symbolic mutilations, burning, and torture of the body, which was always displayed in a place that was easily visible to the Black community.
In sum, what is the purpose of lynching?
> the purpose of lynching was to create a reign of terror over the African American community and to make a political statement that Blacks who did not submit to White rule would be severely dealt with.
What is one peculiar element of lynching?
> Another peculiar element of lynchings was the often carnival-like atmosphere that frequently accompanied these murders. Hundreds, if not thousands, of spectators, often including children, came out to watch and even participate in lynchings.
Are ritualistic lynchings still a thing?
> Unfortunately, ritualistic lynchings have not disappeared entirely, as the case of Michael Donald illustrates. (killed because KKK members believed they should avenge a policeman that was killed by a black man)
What is Anti-Semitism?
> refers to derogatory speech and action targeted against Jews and relies on very old images and prejudices.
What is referred to as the “longest hatred”
> anti-Semitism has sometimes been referred to as the longest hatred
While the majority of the anti-Semitism tracked by the ADL occurred in public places, a surprisingly high amount occurred in what other locations?
> a surprisingly high amount occurred in K–12 schools and college campuses, which one would think would be largely resistant to such kinds of intolerance.
What is scapegoating used for?
> Scapegoating can be used by political, social, and religious leaders in order to capitalize on old prejudices and further their own goals, whatever those might be.
It is no accident that the ADL tracked an increase in anti-Semitic hate crime in the wake of what year?
> the 2008 downturn
In 2017, a surge in anti-Semitic acts in the United States once agai reappeared.
1. the ADL documented how many incidents?
2. What was the increase in incidents during this year in a percentage.
3. What was this year considered?
4. Over 60% of these events occurred in a handful of specific states, which 6 are they?
NY, CAL, NJ, M, F, P
1.1,986 incidents of anti-Semitism, a number that represents a
2.57% increase in anti-Semitic incidents.
3.This was the largest single-year increase on record.
4.notably New York, California, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Florida, and Pennsylvania.
What year was the deadliest for jews in the US? How about globally?
1. What percentage increase did the US experience?
2. In which countries in order of prevalence was Anti-Semitism on the rise
> 2018 was the highest year in the US and globally.
> 105% increase in the US
> France 74%^
Italy 60%^
Australia 59%^
South africa 25%^
United Kingdom 16%
Has the number of active hate groups in the United States been increasing?
> the number of active hate groups in the United States has been increasing in recent years
2018 saw the highest number of organized hate groups in 20 years. Much of this dramatic increase is driven by what?
> driven by what may be described as white nationalist groups, which were formally more commonly known as white supremacist groups.
What are White nationalist groups?
> White nationalist groups are organizations whose beliefs center on the ostensible superiority of the white or Aryan people over other races
Ideas about intellectual and physical differences between various racial and other populations have been in wide circulation for a long time and have justified what?
> justified racism, genocide, sexism, slavery, colonialism, and other policies and practices based on exploitation and oppression.
Ideas about intellectual and physical differences between various racial and other populations have been strengthened by what?
> pseudo-scientific beliefs such as Social Darwinism
What should be noted about social darwinism?
> is this a misreading of Darwin’s ideas of natural selection, but it also ignores the reality that all human beings are 99.9% identical and of that .1% difference, 94% of that variation is between individuals from the same population
- Racial differences, in other words, are largely about imagined difference rather than real difference.
What kind of construct is race? How do racist people interpret it?
> a social construct
> Yet for racists, these differences are real and powerful and of central importance to their worldview and, consequently, shape much of the violence that they carry out.
Based on the pseudo-science of Social Darwinism, what movement came into play in that late 19th century?
> the eugenics movement became active in the United Kingdom in the late 19th century and emerged in the United States in the early 20th century
Who coined Eugenics?
> The term eugenics was first used by Francis Galton, an intellectual from England. While his work focused primarily on obtaining desirable human traits through breeding, in the United States, the movement quickly turned to more sinister policies, including the elimination of negative traits.
The movement drove legislation across many states for what procedure?
> The movement drove legislation across many states for forced sterilization of many people, including those who were mentally or physically challenged and others from the ranks of marginalized subgroups.
White supremacist groups continue to exist. In the United States, these groups have included what?
> have included such organizations as the KKK, Posse Comitatus, White Aryan Resistance, and various other neo-Nazi, skinhead, Christian Identity, Christian Patriot, and militia groups.
What beliefs do white supremacist groups share?
> All, however, share the belief that the white race—meaning primarily those from northern Europe—are superior to other races, are responsible for the greatest achievements in culture and civilization, and are threatened by the increasing presence of nonwhite peoples in this country.
It is believed that the resurgence in white supremacy in today’s society represents what?
> represents a reaction to the perceived loss of power felt by some white men. I
What does Phyllis B. Gerstenfeld, a scholar of hate crime, contend about White supremacists?
> White supremacists believe the power that is rightfully theirs, by virtue of their superior race, is being stolen by others
> They believe nonwhites in general take it by immigrating to the United States in great masses and by reproducing when they get here, thereby eventually taking power through sheer force of numbers. They believe race traitors take it by interbreeding with nonwhites, thus contaminating the superior Aryan gene pool. Over and over in white supremacist writings appear these words: “We must take our country back.”
According to census projections, by 2045, whites will, for the first time, become what?
> become a minority population in the United States.
Research has found that as immigration and ethnic diversity increases in a society, what becomes diminished?
> trust, altruism, and community cooperation are correspondingly diminished
In 2015, Europe experienced a dramatic increase in the number of refugees seeking admittance to European Union nations - what happened to the attitudes overtime?
> While a number of western European nations embraced these new arrivals, it wasn’t long before attitudes and opinions began hardening.
> These same nations have since seen a significant reaction against this influx with negative rhetoric and stereotyping and anti-immigrant violence increasing in frequency and severity.
Here in the United States, anti-immigrant ideas have often been a main concern of what groups?
> been a main concern of white supremacist groups, which is why they are also sometimes referred to as nativists.
What is nativism?
> Nativism refers to the practice of protecting the interests and prerogatives of native citizens over immigrants.
What do white supremacists believe about immigration?
> they have defined immigration as a national emergency and a crisis
ne study looking at the websites of hate groups found that these sites often portrayed immigrants in what ways? What does this fuel?
> portrayed immigrants in various dehumanizing and threatening ways because they “steal jobs” and are labeled as violent criminals and rapists
> This fuels genocide
Do immigrants have lower crime rates than citizens?
> empirical evidence that shows immigration has had no effect on crime in rural communities between 1990 and 2010 and that during the same time period, immigration was actually linked with lower crime rates
While in presidency, what attitudes did Donald Trump endorse?
> President Trump created a climate in which these nativist attitudes and prejudices have been given free rein and even amplified.
Recent research suggests that hatred and intolerance haven’t really increased, but what has changed? What has this “Effect” been called?
> more people feel empowered to express those sentiments in an increasingly polarized nation.
> the trump effect
What is the trump effect?
> a term coined originally to refer to an increase in bullying in schools attributed to the divisive rhetoric used by Donald Trump in his successful 2016 presidential campaign
> now defines how people are not afraid to voice their nativist attidues in public and dehumanize immigrants.
The silver lining in this dark cloud is empirical evidence indicating that prejudicial attitudes in the U.S. population have actually decreased since what?
> president trump had been elected
> prejudiced attitudes against minority groups have actually declined.
At some level, all violence is the result of what mentality?
> is the result of an us versus them mentality.
*Perpetrators usually see their victims as being different and somehow of lesser worth or value.
*They also tend to perceive their victims as having brought on their own victimization.
*In their own minds, these offenders are being violent only as a kind of righteous payback or retaliation.
What is xenophobia?
> is the tendency to have contempt for foreigners or other strangers, which is particularly likely in times of economic hardship, when resources are scarce.
> used for righteous payback or retaliation for violence in hate crimes
Researchers have found that groups tend to develop much more reactive and punitive attitudes during what times? Does this link to immigration?
> uncertain economic times, periods of high crime rates, and eras of social and cultural change
> We find, for example, that in the United States, negative stereotypes of immigrant populations and crimes against them have been shown to increase during times of economic depression.
Ironically, perpetrators of this kind of violence (related to xenophobia) often define themselves as:
> being the victims, and the groups they target are seen as being the perpetrators because of the social, cultural, and demographic changes they represent.
What are “lone-wolves”
> individuals who take part in a movement but remain largely anonymous.
What are 5 ways that hate groups and hate speech can flourish online?
PRIV,PERS, ANY, PLN, SUP
1) Privacy
2) Persuasion
3) Anonymity:
4) Planning
5) Support
The problem with the kind of stereotypes and prejudices that lead to hate crimes is that they are:
> remarkably enduring. (similar to a forest fire)
Why do stereotypes and prejudices persist?
1) deep-seated instinct among groups to distinguish between who is and who is not included. The tendency to separate ourselves into in-groups and out-groups is very strong.
*As such, the elements responsible for socialization—including family, school, religious organizations, and society as a whole—each play a role in creating hate.
Hate crime victimizations should also be responded to by what and not just law enforcement?
> the community
> This is important not only to show unity within the community against hate but also to send a message to the hate crime victims that their community cares about them.
