Chapter 12 Flashcards
General violence prevention efforts are conducted by what system and are often informed by what perspective?
> by the criminal justice system
> have been informed by a public health perspective.
The costs of violence exist well beyond what? Do the acts only affect the individual?
> exist well beyond one single act and far past the perpetrators or victims.
>
- the harm inflicted by violent acts also negatively impacts many other people beyond the victims themselves.
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-V), PTSD is defined as what kind of disorder?
> is defined as a trauma and stressor-related disorder
refers to mental health difficulties that some people develop after having gone through or having witnessed a life-threatening event.
What is the symptomolgy of PTSD?
IRCD/NMS,F,AB,PN,OOA,DC,AHSR,
> include recurrent dreams and nightmares,
flashbacks,
avoidance behaviors,
psychological numbing,
outbursts of anger,
difficulty concentrating,
a heightened startle response,
>
- various other problems that can dramatically affect their ability to function and maintain relationships and jobs
Is the suffrage of PTSD limited to homicides on the part of loved ones? What are these people called?
> Not limited to just homicides.
Studies have shown that after the sexual assault of a loved one (such as a family member, for example), the family and friends of the victim usually suffer significant emotional pain and a number of physical and psychological problems
> Called secondary victims
Aside from friends and family, what can secondary victims include? Provide an example.
?/5 report feeling unsafe + sympyoms of PTSD like those exposed to war?
> secondary victims also include those who may not directly know the victim(s) but have witnessed or even heard (e.g., a fight outside or gunshot) the incident
> school-aged children in public housing projects that have witnessed a shooting -
1 in 5 residents reported feeling unsafe and many children in these communities often display symptoms of PTSD, similar to those seen in children exposed to war or other major disasters.10
Is the trauma experienced by victims short term? If not- how can trauma be experienced over time?
> these impacts are not only short term.
> Research has shown that trauma can be passed down over time intergenerationally (within an extended family unit)
What is intergenerational trauma?
> refers to families keeping the memory of victimization alive by sharing the stories and perceptions of that experience.
When was intergenerational trauma recognized? (In what population was it recognized?
> was first recognized in children of Holocaust survivors.
> The research found that those who lived through the Holocaust often suffered from PTSD—but somewhat surprisingly, so did their children, even though they had not directly experienced the Nazi-perpetrated genocide.
Can trauma extend beyond an individual? What is this called? Provide an example:
Hint - note intergenerational trauma.
> harm extends beyond individuals to entire communities and subgroups of the population.
> This is sometimes called historical trauma.
> This type of trauma concerns a larger community or group that experiences trauma simply because they are members in the same group/subgroup as the victim(s) (e.g., member of a race/ethnic group, resident of city, student/employee of high school).
> For example: every time there is a school shooting, kids going to school as well as their parents, their teachers, and school administrators across the country all feel the pain of loss and increased anxiety and fear regarding their safety.
Traumatic reactions to new events can also exacerbate what kind of traumas? Provide an example of this incident.
> past traumas.
> I.E., simply watching media coverage of tragedies such as the Boston Marathon bombings can retraumatize people who have experienced other traumatic situations, even if they are far removed from the actual event itself.
Research has shown that people who experience traumatic events lose what brain function?
> lose their cognitive bias that the world is predictable and safe, which further increases the likelihood of depression and anxiety.
What do Roberts and Green point out about our lives and bias? What shatters our bias in our lives? What 3 specific assumptions are shattered?
> point out that all of us live our lives based on certain assumptions
violent victimization often shatters these assumptions
1) about being in control of our lives,
2) feeling a sense of safety and security, a
3) nd notions of fairness and justice
What are direct costs of violence?
> Direct costs include those arising immediately following the event, such as the cost of medical care.
What are indirect costs of violence? Are they easy to calculate? Are they ciritcal to understand the economic impact that violence has on society?
> costs of a victimization that are incurred by the larger society.
> It is important to remember that while indirect costs are the most difficult to calculate, including such figures help us better understand the huge economic impact that violence has on society.
Combined, murder, rape, assault, and robbery cost the United States how much in medical expenses, law enforcement, courts, correctional facility expenses, and lost earnings? What does this figure not include?
> over $42 billion annually
> this doesn’t include intangibles, such as pain, suffering, and a loss of life quality, as we briefly explored above.
One analysis of eight U.S. cities (Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Jacksonville, Milwaukee, Philadelphia, Seattle) estimated the intangible costs of violent offenses and arrived at what total?
> arrived at a total of $13.9 billion every year for only these locations.
> That is nearly $14 billion for the eight cities in the study alone and does not include all of the indirect costs for the rest of the country.
Nationwide, it is estimated that the intangible costs of violent crime are around the order of of what cost?
> $156 billion per year.
20% of all mental health spending is used to treat what kind of victims?
> treat victims of violent crime.
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that the costs of interpersonal violence is what? How many deaths are a result of violent crime? How many crimes need medical condition?
> is hundreds of billions (too large to estimate)
> They note that of the 1.6 million deaths across the world attributed to violence, over 85% are due to interpersonal violence.
> They also estimate that for every violent death, there are 10 to 40 times as many injuries that require medical attention.
1) What percentage of americans fear becoming a victim of violent crime when traveling?
2) “ for being alone at night?
3) “for being at home?
4) “ limit where they go?
5) how many are careful when they go shopping?
1) 72% fear becoming a victim of violent crime when traveling,
2) 61% fear being attacked when out alone at night in their communities,
3) 60% acknowledge fear even when they are at home.
4) Furthermore, 60% of people surveyed limit where they go
5) while approximately a third of respondents are careful about when and where they go shopping.
What are the rates out of 5 for working in certain locations that aren’t dangerous, installed security systems, and purchased a weapon for self-defense?
> round 1 in 5 respondents will work only in certain locations because they do not want to take jobs in places they think are dangerous.
> On top of this, over 1 in 4 people have installed home security systems,
> and 1 in 5 have purchased a weapon for self-defense
Has the fear of violence been stable over time?
> This fear has stayed remarkably stable over time. In 1980, about 40% of respondents reported that they were too afraid to walk alone at night.
> In 2013, this number was at 37%, despite the fact that violent crime had declined significantly since the first survey.
> Ironically, in 2013, when asked if there was more or less crime in their area than the previous year, 37% said that there was more.
According to the UCR and NCVS data, has crime declined or increased?
> Empirical evidence based on both Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program’s police report data and National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) self-reporting data all indicate that crime had significantly declined.
Are our fears in proportion for the data for stranger perpetrated violence?
> our fears of violent crime have not decreased in correspondence to the decrease in violence.
> Not only are our fears about general risk not keeping up with overall trends in violence, but our fears of stranger-perpetrated violence are also out of sync with the data.
> Ironically, most of us are more fearful of strangers, but we are generally more at risk of being victimized by someone we know.
What does the apprehension of violence impact? As a result, how does this affect us?
> impacts our worldview and often results in a more cynical and mistrustful view of others.
> In turn, this makes us less willing to interact and extend ourselves for the benefit of our fellow citizens and community members.
> we don’r see the world as safe and just.
What are the costs of overall violence?
I+C, D+I, M+P, + E
> The costs are individual and collective; direct and indirect; monetary, physical, and emotional.
What are two points that need to be emphasized when talking about violence?
> First, any attempt to address the problem of violence must confront it on a number of different levels - there is no single root cause of violence.
> The second major point that we want to emphasize is that prevention is always better than intervention.
A good example of a well-intentioned policy that failed is what?
> the famous Minneapolis experiment (by Richard Berk and Lawrence Sherman conducted an experiment in Minneapolis, Minnesota, to determine whether arrest was an effective deterrent for intimate partner assault.)
> The effects of arrest on future incidents of intimate partner violence were inconsistent at best - not what they claimed and hence the policy was not effective.
Prevention efforts are generally aimed at what reducing what for what kind of population and ehnancing what kind of factors?
> aimed at reducing risk factors for the entire population and enhancing protective factors that prevent violence from occurring in the first place.
Efforts directed at intervention, are aimed at what? Can they be aimed at people as what?
> are aimed at intervening after something has already occurred or is at a high risk of occurring.
> these interventions can be directed at both victims and perpetrators of violence
The public health approach to violence prevention focuses on what efforts? How about the criminal justice approach? What is another way to differentiate the two?
> focuses primarily on prevention efforts,
> while the criminal justice approach places a great deal of emphasis on intervention.
> Put another way, public health tends to be proactive, while criminal justice tends to be reactive.
rtunately, many programs have been implemented jointly by the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that combine what two approaches?
> that combine the public health and criminal justice approaches.
Generally, research that evaluates the effectiveness of some program or policy is called what research?
> is called evaluation research.
In order to determine whether a program or policy has a causal effect on an intended outcome (e.g., reducing violence), what design is employed? What is the alternative design?
> a randomized control trial (RCT),
> otherwise known as a true experimental design, is needed.
In an RCT, elements of a group or population (e.g., convicted offenders) are randomly assigned to one of two groups. What are the two groups?
> The first group, typically called the experimental group, participates in the program or is treated in a way dictated by a specific policy, while the control group does not or is not.
To ensure the experimental and control groups are truly equivalent, individuals are placed into each group through what means?
> through random assignment (different than random selection)
> random selection = randomly selecting a sample from the population
The U.S. DOJ provides information on the programs that are considered what?
> have been evaluated using RCTs and proven to be effective in reducing various types of violence and aggression on its website called CrimeSolutions.gov.
> Importantly, all programs on this site have been rated based on the rigorousness of the studies that evaluated them.
> Only those programs that have been evaluated using an RCT and that still show promise are allowed to be given the label effective.
When it is impossible to randomly assign the population to an experimental and control condition, what design can be used?
> a quasi-experimental design may be used.
> Quasi simply means something missing in Latin, and in the case of evaluation research, it typically means that there was a control group and an experimental group but there was no random assignment.
when you click on the list of programs that have been designated as effective, you will see that the majority of these programs are not directly related to what? Instead what factors are they related to and why do they show in this section?
> violence prevention
> nstead, most are directed at factors related to violence, such as substance abuse.
> The reason it comes up in a search for preventing violence is because alcohol and some drugs have been shown to facilitate violence.
What is the first program directly related to preventing violence mentioned in this chapter?
> Problem-solving or problem-oriented policing
What is Problem-solving or problem-oriented policing?
> generally focuses law enforcement efforts on proactively solving problems related to crime rather than reactively responding to calls for service after a crime has already occurred.
What is the goal of problem-solving or problem-oriented policing?
> The goal of such an orientation for law enforcement agencies is to identify and resolve underlying problems related to crime.
When was the problem-solving or problem-oriented policing developed? Has it been used?
> This model was developed in the 1980s, and the majority of police departments across the county have now implemented some aspects of it.
> In fact, police departments across the globe have adopted this method of policing
Typically, problem-oriented policing involves four components represented by the acronym SARA: what does each letter stand for?
S-canning, which involves police identifying and prioritizing problems that may be causing crime and disorder.
A-nalysis, which involves police analyzing the problem to determine appropriate responses.
R-esponse, where the police implement interventions to solve the problem(s).
A-ssessment, which involves determining whether the intervention actually worked
Problem-solving policing is increasingly being used to target what areas of cities? What are these areas referred to as?
> is increasingly being used to target small areas of a city, such as street segments or intersections that consistently have high rates of crime.
> These small areas are referred to as hotspots because crime is highly concentrated in these areas.
What is an example of a specific operation of problem-solving policing for target small areas?
> One such program is called Operation Ceasefire, which was first implemented in Boston, Massachusetts.
> This program was designed to reduce gang violence, illegal gun possession, and gun violence in communities and was based on deterrence theory, which contends that crimes can be prevented when would-be offenders perceive the costs of crime to be greater than the benefits.
How does the operation Ceasefire program incorporate methods of prevention and intervention? (What are three elements)
> Operation Ceasefire involved many agencies beyond the criminal justice department, including community members and clergy.
> It was communicated to youth involved in violence that there was a zero-tolerance policy for future violence and that all acts would be punished quickly.
> Importantly, it was also communicated to all street-involved youth that if they wanted to step away from a violent lifestyle, services offered by the Operation Ceasefire working group were available to them, including job and educational training opportunities.
It was not possible to randomly assign individuals within a neighborhood to participate in Operation Ceasefire, but researchers were able to compare trends in gun violence in treated neighborhoods with trends in areas of Boston where gangs were not targeted by the program. What was found?
> Results indicate that the Ceasefire program reduced homicides by about one-third compared to the control group areas.
In 2019, there were approximately how many people in state and federal prisons, juvenile correctional facilities, local jails, military prisons, immigration detention facilities, civil commitment centers, and psychiatric hospitals? What was the rate out of 100,000 people?
> 2.3 million people
> This translates to a rate of 698 per 100,000 people, which is one of the highest prison rates in the world and nearly four times as high as imprisonment rates in European countries
In state prisons, about half of all inmates are serving time for what crime?
> for a violent crime
What are sanctions that follow after one is release from prison for being arrested for a violent crime?
> these sanctions include being excluded from voting and from opportunities for employment, licensing, housing, and other public benefits.
What are hidden sanctions referred to as?
> often referred to as collateral consequences, and they make it extremely difficult for those released from prison with a criminal record to find suitable housing and a job that pays a living wage
That the majority of offenders end up returning to prison for some new offense, including what offences and how long within their release?
parole violations, within five years of release
In 2003, several federal agencies (including the U.S. Departments of Justice, Labor, Education, Housing and Urban Development, and Health and Human Services) provided grants to states to develop or enhance programs to do what?
> facilitate the reentry of adult and juvenile offenders to communities from prisons or juvenile detention facilities.
What was the program developed by several federal agencies in 2003 to facilitate the reentry of adult and juvenile offenders to communities?
> his program was called the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI).
> The programs implemented differed by state, but they were all supposed to include a continuum of services that started while offenders were incarcerated and then continued for several years after release.
Was the SVORI program successful?
> the SVORI initiative showed only modest improvements in recidivism among those treated compared to violent offenders who did not receive the program
One of the challenges of meeting the multiple needs of inmates returning to their communities is what?
> is having organizations, including community partners along with criminal justice and social service agencies, communicate and collaborate to reach this goal.
Which state had the most successful SVORI program?
> New Jersey’s SVORI initiative was managed by an outside “neutral convener” that facilitated collaboration between the New Jersey Department of Corrections, the New Jersey State Parole Boards in Camden and Essex counties, and the other agencies delivering services to those released from prison.
> When rearrest data were examined, results indicated that SVORI participants were less likely to be arrested than the regular parolees. In fact, over 60% of SVORI participants were not rearrested during the time of their supervision, and less than 7% were rearrested for a violent offense.
The criminal justice response to violence prevention is generally based on what philosophy?
> based on the philosophy of deterrence and punishment.
What does James Gilligan believe about the criminal justice approach ?
> humanity has been engaged in a great social experiment, testing the hypothesis that we could prevent violence, or at least diminish its scale and intensity, by labeling it “evil” and “criminal” [and] ordering people not to engage in it;
> and then, when they commit acts of violence anyway, retaliating with more violence of our own, which we call “punishment” and “justice.”
> this “experiment” has not been entirely successful and has had many unintended consequences
What sentences have filled many state prison facilities to overflowing conditions?
> mandatory minimum sentences
What was the result of the mandatory minimum sentences in California?
> In fact, in 2010, the Supreme Court ruled that California’s prison system was so overcrowded that prisoners were existing in conditions that amounted to “cruel and unusual punishment,” and the court demanded the state reduce its prison population by 30,000.
The public health approach to the issue of violence is fundamentally different from the criminal justice approach. Importantly, it does not pay attention to what?
> it does not pay attention solely or even primarily to the perpetrator but rather attempts to examine a wider range of factors that influence violence.
> Just as it does for diseases, a public health approach to violence examines the factors that are related to the prevalence of violence and tries to prevent them.
Rather than accepting violence as an inevitable fact of life, the public health paradigm assumes that violence is what kind of problem?
> violence is a social problem that can be remedied using the same kinds of communitywide and multilevel strategies that have been so successfully used against other social problems
Another important difference between the two responses to violence is that the criminal justice response embodies a moral perspective, while the public health response does what?
> does not embody that perspective
> The public health orientation, on the other hand, tends to focus on epidemiological research to identify and understand the causes of violence. + it is philosophically oriented toward a preventative stance rather than a punitive one.
This traditional legal/moral approach is often preoccupied with what idea? How about the public health approach?
> is often preoccupied with deciding whether a perpetrator had a guilty or evil mind (mens rea),
> public health practitioners are concerned with identifying the individual biological, psychological, and environmental factors that intersect with various social experiences to produce violent behavior.
Some agencies across the globe are creating processes and policies derived from a standpoint that criminologists have sometimes termed what and what does it mean?
> restorative justice
> which is largely concerned with repairing the harm and damage caused by violence and criminality
Criminal justice practitioners define certain kinds of violence as crimes, while public health personnel perceive violence as what?
> as a form of intentional injury that places it within a larger category of health problems.
> The public health approach to any problem is interdisciplinary and is informed by many disciplines, including medicine, epidemiology, sociology, criminology, psychology, education, and economics.
In developing preventative measures, the public health approach usually relies on six main elements. What are those 6 elements?
1) Rely on community-based methods to identify root causes and sources of the problem.
2) Generate data to identify patterns of risk and protective factors.
3) Identify and monitor trends in the frequency and nature of risk factors.
4) Implement multilevel community interventions grounded in empirical data designed to reduce or eliminate risk factors or strengthen protective factors.
5) Evaluate and monitor the effectiveness of intervention strategies and revise tactics accordingly.
6) Educate the public about the problems and issues as well as what has been shown to be effective for intervention.
The public health model uses what model to understand violence?
> uses an ecological model to understand violence, which incorporates risk factors at multiple levels, including society, community, relationship, and individual levels
All too often, our national debates on violence are based on:
> ideology, myths, stereotypes, and outright falsehoods.
What does the public health model not assume about the current recommended strategies for crime?
> it doesn’t assume that recommended strategies will be effective in preventing violence. Instead, it depends upon rigorous monitoring and evaluation research to determine whether policies are working and to refine and alter them as needed.
The first tier of prevention is called what and what does it involve?
> is called primary prevention and involves reaching out to the population at large by designing and implementing society- or community-wide preventative measures, regardless of individual risk factors.
A number of scholars, for example, suggest that a fundamental preventative measure would involve reducing what to reduce violence?
> reducing inequality in U.S. society to substantially reduce violence.
Iadicola and Shupe suggest that violence is linked to what?
> violence is linked to the varied ways in which our society keeps individuals and groups in unequal conditions.
> They argue that not only is inequality built into the very structures of our society but it is also reflected in our culture, ideology, and values and that all of these serve to create the conditions necessary for violence to flourish.
Some forms of institutional and structural violence and product and production violence are not defined as violence although they are very destructive in their consequences- what are two examples for each:
> such as racism and discrimination
> and product and production violence such as work-related injuries and the sale of dangerous products
James Gilligan asserts that strategies of primary prevention need to focus on reducing what?
> reducing property
It is also important to understand that inequality is not only about income differences but also includes a wide range of resources, including:
> access to health care, education, economic opportunity, and having a voice in political decision making.
The second level of prevention is what and what does it focus on?
> is secondary prevention
> which focuses on intervention strategies for those who are at an elevated risk of engaging in violence.
How does secondary levels of prevention differ from primary prevention?
> These methods are somewhat more targeted than primary prevention methods, since those are intended for a broader population
> Secondary prevention programs seek to identify and engage young individuals who have a preponderance of these risk factors and a minimum of protective factors.
What are ten risk Factors for Youth Violence?
HOVV/I, ADHD/LD, HEAB, IWDAT, PIC, DISCOIPA, HED, HOTFEP, ABAA, ETVACITF
> History of violent victimization or involvement
> Attention deficit, hyperactivity, or learning disorders
> History of early aggressive behavior
> Involvement with drugs, alcohol, or tobacco
> Poor impulse control
> Deficits in social cognitive or information-processing abilities
> High emotional distress
> History of treatment for emotional problems
> Antisocial beliefs and attitudes
> Exposure to violence and conflict in the family
What are 8 family risk factors for violence?
acra, g/l/i-dp,lpi,leatp/c,lpe/i,psa/c,pff,pm/soc
> Authoritarian child-rearing attitudes
> Harsh, lax, or inconsistent disciplinary practices
> Low parental involvement
> Low emotional attachment to parents or caregivers
> Low parental education and income
> Parental substance abuse or criminality
> Poor family functioning
> Poor monitoring and supervision of children
What are 6 Peer/School Risk Factors for violence?
awdp,iig,srbp,loiica,pap,lwtsasf
> Association with delinquent peers
> Involvement in gangs
> Social rejection by peers
> Lack of involvement in conventional activities
> Poor academic performance
> Low commitment to school and school failure
What are 6 community risk factors for violence?
DEO,HCOI/PR,HLOT,HLOFD,LLOCP,SDN
> Diminished economic opportunities
> High concentrations of inequality and/or poor residents
> High levels of transience (e.g., people moving in and out)
> High levels of family disruption
> Low levels of community participation
> Socially disorganized neighborhoods
One area of secondary prevention where research is increasingly showing promise is in what?
> is in strengthening parenting skills to prevent childhood abuse and trauma.
Once individuals become entrenched in the criminal justice system, it is extremely difficult for them to do what?
> to reestablish a prosocial existence
What are Individual Protective Factors for violence
> Intolerant attitude toward deviance
> Positive social orientation
> Religiosity
> High self-control
What are 6 Family Protective Factors of violence?
CTF/AOTF,ATDP, PPEASPIH, FSAWP, CPOP, IISA
> Connectedness to family or adults outside of the family
> Ability to discuss problems with parents
> Perceived parental expectations about school performance are high
> Frequent shared activities with parents
> Consistent presence of parent during at least one of the following: when awakening, when arriving home from school, at evening mealtime, or when going to bed
> Involvement in social activities
What are two Peer/School Protective Factors for violence:
CTS, IISA
> Commitment to school
> Involvement in social activities
the Seattle Social Development Project (SSDP) consists of three components: what are they?
TT, CSAESD, PT,
> teacher training,
child social and emotional skill development,
and parenting training.
Which programs are multifaceted and designed to increase the bonds between children and their families and children and their schools to promote “positive functioning” and prevent “mental health problems, crime and substance use in adolescence in adulthood?
> the Nurse–Family Partnership,
> the Abecedarian Project, Chicago’s Child–Parent Centers,
> and the Seattle Social Development Project (SSDP)
he larger factor related to the children being placed in the “at-risk” group to begin with was related to other underlying factors, including:
> including their low socioeconomic status, problems in their family of origin, disruptive behavior in preschool, or some combination of these.
a general secondary prevention effort targets what?
> alcohol consumption.
The U.S. Department of Education’s Higher Education Center for Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Violence Prevention suggests that schools adopt what specific initiatives to reduce binge drinking on campuses?
> Offer and promote social, recreational, extracurricular, and public service options that do not include alcohol and other drugs.
> Create a social, academic, and residential environment that supports health-promoting norms.
> Limit alcohol availability both on and off campus.
> Restrict marketing and promotion of alcoholic beverages both on and off campus.
> Develop and enforce campus policies and local, state, and federal laws
The third and last level of prevention is what?
> The third and last level of prevention is tertiary prevention, which isn’t really preventative as its name suggests but is geared toward intervening in the lives of those who have been impacted by violence.
> dealing with perps and victims
Tertiary intervention tends to be less effective than intervention at the previous two levels - why?
> since at this level, harm has already been done and the goal is simply to prevent further harm.
With regard to tertiary public health approaches to the arena of domestic violence, we find many communities have adopted various methods of doing what
> of helping the victims of intimate partner violence, which often includes financial assistance with medical costs, counseling, job training, and numerous other strategies designed to help victims cope with and overcome their history of victimization.
At what level of prevention is the SVORI program?
> The SVORI program highlighted earlier in the chapter is another example of a tertiary prevention program.
What are some examples of tertiary programs? What is the most well known of the examples? What do these programs do?
> include batterer intervention programs (BIPs) and spouse abuse abatement programs (SAAPs) that have been introduced as an alternative to traditional criminal justice responses
> One of the earliest and most well-known of these is the Duluth Program = the gold standard
> Based on a feminist perspective on battering, these programs work to teach men about the nature and impact of patriarchy and resocialize them into adopting more equal and nonviolent intimate relationships.
