class questions Flashcards
what is reinforcement
Use of rewards and punishments that increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future
what is positive reinforcement
If doing something–good consequences–people will tend
to try to repeat the behavior to receive additional positive consequences give Appetitive stimulus
giving something positive
what is negative reinforcement
If doing something–negative consequences–people will tend to try not to repeat the behavior so they can avoid more negative consequences
Removing something Aversive stimulus, negative
what are the pros and cons of using punishment?
pro
1) Can be successful – control and change negative behaviours
2) Expectation of cooperation and animosity toward wrongdoers
3) Cheating should be punished because of the consequences of
others
4) Cheaters will not have benefit in the long-run
5) Assures others that wrongdoers are held accountable
6) Signal to violators there are consequences to actions
cons
1. Lack of support and relates to negative behaviours (sometimes you cant stop them)
2. Degrading or shame producing –linked to failure or weakness (you should feel shame for failing ?)
3. Fear of failure – motivation – avoid messing up… multiple
consequences (Hot potato effect because no one wants to be in trouble )
4. Create an unpleasant learning environment – only suppressing behaviour not actually removing it
(Under stress the athlete will show the learned behaviour )
how can you maximize positive feedback?
.
what is the relationship between rewards and intrinsic motivation
.
how can you enhance intrinsic motivation
psychological factors affecting motivation include
(a) need for competence (to feel confident and selfefficacious),
(b) need for autonomy (to have input into decisions or in some way “own” them), and
(c) need for relatedness
what is arousal
Continuum of physiological and psychological activation
what is anxiety
Negative/unpleasantemotional/affective state associated with high activation/arousal
what is stress
A substantial imbalance between physical and psychological demands placed on an individual and his or her response capability under conditions in which failure to meet demands has important consequences.
what are the different anxiety measures
– Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2
• Measures Somatic A-State, • Cognitive A-State,
• State Confidence
Sport Anxiety Scale (Smith, Smoll, Schutz, 90)
• Measure three dimensions of CTA
– Somatic A-Trait (9 Items)
– Cognitive/Worry A- Trait (7 items)
– Concentration disruption A- Trait (5 items)
• Tendency to lose focus due to anxiety
how does anxiety affect performance
.
describe and explain different theories of anxiety and performance
- Drive Theory – Spence & Spence, 1966
- Inverted U Theory
- Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning
- Catastrophe Theory
- ReversalTheory
- Anxiety direction and interpretation
understand the stress process
stage 1
Stage 1: Athlete is confronted with an “Environmental Demand”
…demands are placed upon an individual’s physical and psychological capabilities.
what are peers
Individuals of equal standing, whether this is a function of age, or rank, or class
– People of similar athletic capabilities – Starting status
– Experiences regardless of age
what is popularity
Experience of being liked or accepted by one’s peers
– Group-level construct
– Social acceptance, peers status
what is friendship
A history of interactions among individuals who are familiar to one another
what is the positive influences of peer sport
.Focus on intrinsic if you have a positive peer relationship
– Positive feelings toward PA – Higher PA motivation – Higher physical self-worth – Lower stress – Higher self-determined motivation – Continued participation
what is the negative influences of peer sport
– Conflict-can affect motivation and effort or moving from one peer group to another
– Unattractive personal qualities-Don’t feel part of the peer group if you don’t get to have your say. People that are “ me me me me”
– Betrayal-Group will split into two smaller group
Redefine who my personal are, who I compare myself to
Not changing peer groups by choice
– Inaccessibility-You believe is your peer group but they don’t believe you are part of it
Perceive that I am the same as them but they don’t think your the same. Starter but the other starters don’t think your a starter
Differences between boys and girls ( women drag it out more)
what is the relationship between peers and motivation
.
what is the relationship between peers and moral development
.
what is the relationship between peers and
perceived confidence
.
social currency
.
cognitive and somatic anxiety
– Cognitive anxiety: Worry, Self-doubt, Concern, Apprehension
– Somatic Anxiety: Physiological symptoms associated with autonomic nervous system
trait anxiety and state anxiety
Trait - a relatively stable personality predisposition to view situations as threatening, prompting heightened state anxiety- competitive trait anxiety
State -unstable/fluctuatingemotionalstate “characterised by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension, accompanied by or associated with activation…of the autonomic nervous system
how anxiety effects performance via each theory
.
Competitive trait anxiety
stable personality disposition that describes an individual’s “tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening and to respond to these situations with A-state”
Stage 2: Athlete perceives/appraises the “nature” of the demand
Primary apprasial : is the situation “threatening” and important to physical/psychological well-being (goals/values)
Secondary appraisal: do I feel that I have the ability/ resources to successfully deal with demands of the situation
Stage 3
if athlete feels that demands exceed coping capabilities, threat is perceived, and the “stress response” occurs.
Negative affect.
State Anxiety
Loss of Focus/Attention
stage 4
Behavioural consequence (i.e., performance outcome) associated with the stress response.
• In general, performance decrements occur.
(Facultative vs debilitive anxiety)
to stage 2: appraisal).
• “avoidance” strategies/behaviours.
Social Facilitation Theory
An application of Drive Theory
Contention:The presence of “evaluative”othersinthe “performance environment” increases an individual’s arousal level.
• Zajonc(1965) noticed that performance on well-learned and simple tasks improved in presence of others.
Dominant Response = Skilled Performance
• Zajonc(1965) noticed that performance on poorly learnedand
complex tasks decreased in presence of others. Dominant Response = Unskilled Performance
Limitations of drive theory
Theory cannot explain why elite athletes sometimes“choke”when highly aroused (i.e., their dominant response should be skilled performance)?
criticisms of inverted u
Curve shape – relationship not entirely symmetrical
Unidimensional in defining arousal/anxiety (Woodman & Hardy, 2001)
Consistent for only simple performance tasks (Neiss, 1988) Descriptive not explanatory (Neiss, 1988)
Presents methodological, interpretive, conceptual, and
statistical probabilities (almost anything could be
supportive)
Optimal performance always moderate levels questioned
Doesn’t recognize individual appraisals of tasks
IZOF
ndividualized Zones of Optimal
Functioning (IZOF)
Assumes that every athlete has his/her own “optimal zone” of anxiety (or arousal) associated with best performances.
Practical IZOF Issues/Considerations
Takes a long time given need for multiple assessments.
• Difficulty getting “valid” measures of performance.
• Need considerable expertise to identify performance- anxiety (arousal) zones (…presence of “outliers”)
• Hanin’s original IZOF model was based on a “unidimensional” assessment of A-state (…used Spielberger’s STAI).
…establishing IZOF for the combination of cognitive and somatic scores is much more complicated.
• How do we track/control differences in “event importance”?
Reversal Theory Kerr
postulates that the manner in which an individual interprets his/her level of physiological arousal affects performance.
what is POMS?
Profile of mood states
tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, confusion
multidimensional anxiety measures
SAS ( sport anxiety scale, smith et al) somatic trait scale. CSAI-2( competitive state anxiety) somatic state anxiety cognitive state anxiety scale self confidence scale
catastrophe theory
by HARDY AND FAZEY
challenges multidimensional anxiety theory for predicting performance by examining somatic anxiety and cognitive anxiety in isolation.
low cognitive anxiety= gentle inverted U- relationship between physiological arousal and performance
high cognitive anxiety- performance improvement as arousal increases to an optimal threshold, but increases past that point resulting in catastrophe
low to optimal arousal: positive correlation between cognitive anxiety and performance
high arousal= negative correlation between anxiety and performance.
Athletes participate in sport to fulfill 4 primary needs?
Fun & Stimulation
Acceptance & Belonging
Control & Autonomy
Feel Competent & Success
TARGET
Task structure- Design activities that emphasize improvement and learning.
Authority structure- Create opportunities for independence, responsibility, and self-direction.
Reward structure- recognize athletes’ learning, effort, and improvement.
Grouping -provide options to group like minded individuals together
Evaluation-Self referencing testing
Timing-Timing of allowing to make decisions, too early and the players do not trust the coach, timing of evaluations and rewards
