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Class Notes Flashcards

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1
Q

Reasons to study child development

A

a. raising children
b. social policy
c. understanding human nature

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2
Q

Examples of why developmental psych is important.

A

a. Autism and vaccines
b. Shyness and parenting
c. Nicaraguan sign language invented by kids

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3
Q

Why is raising children a reason to study child development?

A

 Research allows for evidence-based practices to help us raise healthy, happy children and reduce controversy in parenting strategies.

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4
Q

Themes of child development

A
  1. Nature/Nurture
  2. The Active Child
  3. Continuity/Discontinuity
  4. Mechanisms of Developmental Change
  5. The Sociocultural Context
  6. Individual Differences
  7. Research/Children’s Welfare
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5
Q

Phenotype vs Genotype

A

Genotype is the genetic makeup, phenotype is how it affects physical characteristics. Phenotype depends on interaction with the environment

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6
Q

Why is social policy a reason to study child development?

A

 Research facilitates informed decisions about social policies that affect children like education, child testimony, and health education.

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7
Q

Heritability

A

Heritability is the genes that parents pass along to parents (50% each) but environment also affects things

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8
Q

Why is understanding human nature a reason to study child development?

A

Interest in if there are critical periods and innate aspects of human behavior.

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9
Q

nature/nurture

A

 Nature: genetics/innate endowment
 Nurture: environment
 Every trait is influenced by both interacting with each other, complex

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10
Q

the active child

A

 Children contribute to their own development
• Elicit reactions from others
• Select environments
• This becomes more prominent the older you are
 Form attachments and learn language by being interested in what’s around you

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11
Q

continuity/discontinuity

A

 Pine tree: developmental continuity
• Gradual, can be difficult to notice unless looking over large period
 Butterfly: developmental discontinuity
• Complete categorical change from what you were like before
 Depends on how you examine
• Height can seem continuous or discontinuous
o Looking in centimeters = gradual
o Looking by year = discontinuous
 Stage theories: development occurs in a progression of age-related, qualitative shifts

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12
Q

o Mechanisms of developmental change

A

 Why/how does change occur?
• Interaction of genes and environment
• Adolescent and young adult risky behavior
o Spending more time with peers increases possibility of risk behavior
 Allostatic load: wear and tear on body that results from chronic severe life stress
 Predictor=chronic life stress, mechanism=allostatic load, developmental outcome=poor mental and physical health

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13
Q

o Sociocultural context

A

 Physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances
 Example: co-sleeping
• US emphasizes independence while other countries emphasize teamwork/codependence
 Ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic status have strong implications for child development
• 16% of children in 2020 live below poverty line
o Matters because it is associated with poor environmental conditions
o Disproportionately affects people of color
o Parents have less time and less resources to provide for the kids

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14
Q

individual differences

A

 How do children become different from one another?
• 4 key factors
o Genes
 Impact but don’t determine everything
o Differential treatment
 Teachers respond more positively to students who do well
o Reactions
 Everyone reacts differently to their environment
• a loud bang may illicit a larger response from one person than another
o Environment selection
 As you grow older, you’re more able to choose your environment
• Sports, friends, etc.
• research and children’s welfare

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15
Q

research and children’s welfare

A

 Practical benefits to diagnosing and helping problems that arise in children
• Books, programs

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16
Q

Gene-environment correlations

A

occur when there are genetically influenced differences in exposure to environmental risk factors.
Evocative: child prompts changes in how people treat them. ex: Angry kid makes people scared to interact with him
Active: how the kid influences their own development. ex: kid that likes books reads a lot and gets smart.

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17
Q

genotype

A

the genetic material an individual inherits

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18
Q

heredity

A

how parents pass on genes to their child

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19
Q

gene-environment correlation

A

 When genetic makeup is correlated with their environment
 Passive gene-environment correlations versus parenting effects
• The association between a genotype inherits from their parents and the environment they are raised in
o The environment parents create at home is influenced by parents own characteristics

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20
Q

phenotype

A

individuals observable characteristics; results from interaction of the genotype with the environment. Can be turned on or off.

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21
Q

Gene-environment interactions

A

Early experiences in the environment affect how different genes manifest themselves

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22
Q

Shared and non-shared environments

A

Shared environments are the same. Non-shared environments are different.

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23
Q

How does environment impact child phenotype?

A

If there is family conflict, the child may misbehave more.

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24
Q

evocative

A

fussy children are more likely to evoke neglecting/hostile parenting.

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25
Q

active

A

children seek out environments that are compatible with their genetic dispositions

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26
Q

Brain development processes

A

a. neurogenesis: proliferation of neurons
b. migration: cells move to their ultimate destination
c. synaptogenesis: brain generates synapses
d. synaptic pruning: brain generates too many synapses, eliminates some.
e. myelination: neurons wrapped in insulation that allows for electrical signals

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27
Q

Plasticity advantages/disadvantages

A

Brain changes due to experience. Advantage: it allows for learning. Disadvantage: some experiences are bad but your brain still changes.

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28
Q

Types of plasticity

A

a. experience-expectant: general experiences shared by humanity are expected by individual brains and just happen.
b. experience-dependant: neural paths are changed. LEARNING.
c. brain damage/recovery: when brain gets damaged, plasticity can rewire things

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29
Q

Adolescent brain development changes

A
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30
Q

How can gene’s and environment interact.

A

recessive genetic disorders can appear later in life if child goes through maltreatment. For example, men who experienced severe maltreatment were more likely to engage in antisocial behavior.

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31
Q

MAOA gene

A

gene that can appear if child goes through maltreatment. It inhibits brain chemicals associated with aggression

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32
Q

Assimilation

A

Translate new information into existing schemas. e.x. have schema for horses, see zebra, think a zebra is a horse

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33
Q

Accomadation

A

Change schemas to adapt to new information. e.x. realize a zebra isn’t a horse

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34
Q

epigenetics

A

genetic inheritance is fixed, but gene expression is not because it is influenced by environment.

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35
Q

Equilibration

A

Process by which you use assimilation and accommodation together to make sure no information conflicts with any schemas.

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36
Q

Equilibrium

A

Schemas balanced, nothing conflicting

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37
Q

methylation

A

a process that silences gene expression. Parental stress during child’s first year causes gene expression to change

38
Q

Piaget’s theory

A
  • has stages
  • universally applied
    4 stages
    1. sensorimotor
    2. pre-operational
    3. concrete operational
    4. formal operational
39
Q

heritability

A

the variation in an attribute due to genotype variation. For example, cognitive abilities, psychopathology, and personality that you inherit.

40
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A
  • birth - 2 years
  • deferred imitation
  • reflexes
  • exploration
  • lack object permanence until 8 months
  • A-not-B error until 12 months
41
Q

Preoperational Period

A
  • 2 - 7 years
  • symbolic representation
    • pretend play
    • language
    • drawing
  • egocentrism: inability to take others’ perspective
  • centration: lack of conservation
42
Q

shared environment

A

environmental factors make individuals living in the same family like one another

43
Q

nonshared environment

A

factors that make families different from each other. For example, parents can discipline siblings in the same way, but it can be helpful for one and detrimental to the other, making it nonshared environment

44
Q

Concrete Operational

A
  • 7 - 12 years
  • logical thinking begins
  • gain conservation
  • have trouble with hypothetical reasoning
45
Q

Formal Operational

A
  • systematic and hypothetical reasoning
  • internal reflection
  • abstract reasoning
46
Q

psychosocial factors

A

nongenetic influences such as the tv you watch and the books you read

47
Q

biological nongenetic influences

A

trauma, nutrition, air quality

48
Q

Piaget criticisms

A
  • Development is more continuous and more gradual than Piaget believed
  • Piaget underestimated cognitive abilities
  • Not everyone develops at the same rate
  • Cognitive development not universally generalizable in different cultures
49
Q

Information Processing theories

A
  • development is continuous
  • children act as computers to solve problems
50
Q

heritability estimates

A

predictions of what is effecting development, genes or environment, can vary. For example, someone who is in poverty may be more impacted by their environment. Things like nutrition can change their influence.

51
Q

neurogenesis

A

proliferation of neurons that starts around 42 days after conception and complete after midway point of gestation

52
Q

Memory

A
  • slows down and becomes worse as you get older
  • development happens faster at younger ages
53
Q

migration

A

process in which cells move to their final destination. Can be errors, such as a genesis of corpus collosum or skitzansepheli (part of the cortex is missing), that lead to impairment/seizures

54
Q

Executive functioning

A
  • inhibition: resisting temptations/habits, delayed gratification
  • flexibility: being able to switch goals and adapt
55
Q

synaptogenesis

A

cells forming connections with one another so electric nerves can be transmitted between two nerve cells. Continues for years after birth

56
Q

myelination

A

axons of some neurons have a fatty sheath that speed up transmission info. Glial cells wrap around axons of nerve cells. Begins prenatally and continues into early adulthood.

57
Q

apoptosis

A

entire neuron degenerates

58
Q

synaptic pruning

A

axon segments are selectively degenerated

59
Q

what happens when the brain overproduces synapses and neurons?

A

Your brain has greater plasticity, so apoptosis or synaptic pruning must take place

60
Q

What changes does the prefrontal cortex undergo during adolescence?

A

Myelination increases, you work towards goals and suppress inappropriate behaviors, more synapses pre-puberty, pruning post-puberty, and lots of brain development still happening

61
Q

conversation surrounding more plasticity

A

Advantages: ability to adapt to circumstances
Disadvantages: if experiences are not optimal, we are adapting to bad environments. This makes us vulnerable

62
Q

• Experience-expectant plasticity

A

o General experiences shared by the vast majority throughout human evolution are “expected” by the individual brain
 Pattern stimuli, voices, sounds, etc
• Brain needs these experiences to develop in a typical way
• Advantageous because less info must be coded by the genes
• Can be a vulnerability if the expected experience doesn’t happen
o Brain may reorganize for the area to serve some other function
 If you are born deaf, parts of brain used for hearing are used for visual processing

63
Q

sensitive periods

A

sensitive parts of development that cause the biggest effect. experience is expected at certain times. This is why it is harder to learn a language the older you are

64
Q

• Experience-dependent plasticity

A

o Neural connections are created/reorganized throughout life as a function of individual experience
 Learning
• sport
o Persons specific experiences an individual experiences in their unique life (country, treatment by parents, siblings, etc)
o Highly specialized effects can occur
 Cellists and violinists have increased cortical representation of fingers in the left hand because they use it so much

65
Q

brain damage and recovery

A

o Brain especially vulnerable during neurogenesis and neuron migration
o Brain damage during synapse generation and pruning (early childhood) has the best prognosis for recovery
 Plasticity is highest then and the brain can require
o As developmental processes are complete and plasticity lessens, successful recovery from brain damage is less likely

66
Q

assimilation

A

translate new info to fit existing knowledge

67
Q

accommodation

A

change current knowledge in response to new experiences/info

68
Q

equilibration

A

when assimilation isn’t possible, use accommodation to achieve equilibrium

69
Q

disequilibrium (in the context of assimilation)

A

something new happens that can’t be understood through existing knowledge

70
Q

sensorimotor stage

A

Piaget’s first stage. Infants use reflexes, deferred imitation, exploration, object permanence, A-not-B error

71
Q

preoperational stage (2-7 years)

A

second stage. capable of symbolic representation, are egocentric, and focus on a single aspect of an object or event and ignore other features (centration)

72
Q

concrete operational stage (7-12)

A

third stage. logical thinking begins, no longer limited by centration, succeed at conservation tasks, have trouble with systematic and hypothetical reasoning

73
Q

formal operations stage (12+)

A

final stage. systematic and hypothetical reasoning, internal reflection, abstract reasoning. this stage may require education

74
Q

piaget was wrong about stuff

A

his studies on children were kinda hard and not the best. children have more object permanence and less egocentrism than he thought

75
Q

Piaget’s key contributions

A

children are worth studying, the active child, children are “little scientists”, and provides an overview of cognitive abilities across development

76
Q

task analysis

A

children have a goal, which creates a subgoal, which creates another subgoal

77
Q

working memory

A

limited memory that we are actively attending to, gathering, maintaining, and processing.

78
Q

long-term memory

A

information retained for extended periods of time. the sum-total of your knowledge

79
Q

executive functions

A

control your cognition and actions and how efficiently your memory will work. enables you to respond appropriately rather than impulsively.

80
Q

inhibition

A

allows you to resist habits when needed, resist temptation, delay gratification, and work towards a goal

81
Q

flexibility

A

how well and easily you can change your goals based on what is happening in the situation

82
Q

encoding

A

representing info in memory. People encode info that is relevant. children have a harder time encoding relevant info

83
Q

processing speed

A

as children get older, they can process things faster due to more myelinated axons and more brain interconnectivity

84
Q

strategies to improve working memory

A

rehearsal (5-8 years), selective attention (7-8 years), scripts to aid in memory (what are birthday parties like? what are fast food restaurants like? (3-4))

85
Q

Content knowledge

A

experts remember more in a domain than novices, even child experts.

86
Q

educational applications

A

early experiences in a domain will facilitate later achievement

87
Q

sensation vs perception

A

sensation is processing basic info by the receptors in the sense organs and the brain. perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory info about the objects, events, and spatial layout of the world around us

88
Q

visual development

A

continually changing sensations somehow allow us to arrive at a constant perception of things. (for example: we always see cats moving around and at different angles but we know the shape of a cat)

89
Q

perceptual constancy

A

objects have constant shape, size, and color despite physical differences in retinal image

90
Q

object segregation

A

being able to perceive boundaries between objects.

Developmental psych test (4 decks)

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