Class 6 - Memory and Learning Flashcards
1
Q
Limbic System Components
A
Hippocampus, Amygdala, Thalamus, Hypothalamus
2
Q
Thalamus Function
A
Relays sensory information and filters the sensory info.
3
Q
Hypothalamus Function
A
Homeostasis and works with pituitary to regulate hunger and thirst, regulates bodily processes
4
Q
Hippocampus Function
A
Consolidation and encodes for making short-term memory into long-term memory
5
Q
Amygdala Function
A
Fear center and controls sense of urgency
ex. fear, rewards, sexual response
6
Q
Visual Sensory Perception Pathway
A
Sensory info arrives at thalamus and is filtered for further processing or is filtered out
7
Q
Functional Techniques for the Brain
A
PET scan, fMRI, EEG
8
Q
Structural Techniques for the Brain
A
MRI and CT/CAT scan - give static images of the brain, good for looking at the brain
9
Q
Neural plasticity
A
Changes in the brain due to learning, thinking, behavior, emotions, etc. Change can occur from the cellular level to the anatomical level
10
Q
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
A
Connections between neurons strengthen (what “fires together, wires together”)
11
Q
What area of the brain is central to memory and learning?
A
Hippocampus
12
Q
3 Stages for making memories
A
- Encoding - transfer of sensations into the memory system
- Storage - retaining info in long or short-term memory
- Retrieval - extracting the info that’s been stored
13
Q
Multi-Store Model of Memory
A
Sensory input -> Sensory memory (unattended info is lost) -> Short-Term Memory (unrehearsed info is lost) -> Long-Term Memory (some info may be lost over time)
14
Q
Maintenance Rehearsal
A
How we keep short-term memory by rehearsing it
15
Q
What brain structure plays a role in converting sensory info into short-term memory?
A
Thalamus
16
Q
What brain structure plays a role in converting short-term memory into long-term memory?
A
Hippocampus
17
Q
Primacy Effect
A
We tend to remember things that happened first
18
Q
Recency Effect
A
We tend to remember things that we saw more recently
19
Q
Serial Position Effects
A
How people remember things (primacy or recency) - people remember beginning and ending
20
Q
Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory:
A
Central Executive <-> Phonological Loop <-> Semantic Verbal Memory (short-term phonological store, with auditory rehearsal)
Or
Central Executive <-> Visuospatial Sketchpad <-> Semantic Visual Memory (temporary storage and manipulation of spatial and visual info)
Or
Central Executive <-> Episodic Buffer <-> Episodic Memory (info integration and linking to long-term memory)
**EACH PATHWAY IS CONNECTED THROUGH EACH ENDING MEMORY
21
Q
Central Executive
A
Allows us to focus on what’s around us; Responsible for coordination of sub-systems, shifting between tasks, and selective attention and inhibition
22
Q
Encoding
A
The process of transforming info into a form that is more easily stored in our brains
23
Q
The 4 Basic Kinds of Encoding
A
- Semantic (meaning)
- Acoustic (sound)
- Visual (images)
- Elaborative (association with previous long-term memories)
24
Q
Rehearsal
A
Repetition of information leading to increased retention
ex. flashcards
25
Chunking
Grouping related information together in chunks
ex. remembering a phone number
26
Elaboration
Intertwining info to be remembered with well-enhanced pre-existing long-term spatial, visual, acoustic, or semantic memories; Making meaningful connections; associating new info with previous memories
27
Self-Reference
Making info to be remembered personally relevant; a type of elaboration
28
Spacing
Memory works better when reviewed material is spaced out over time
29
Mnemonics
Any technique for improving retention of information
30
Sensory Memory
Iconic (images), Acoustic/Echoic (sound) - both decay quickly and need to use maintenance rehearsal (iconic decay = ,1sec., echoic decay = 2-4sec.)
31
Short-Term Memory
-Rehearsal buffer capacity of 7 (+/- 2)
-Decays in 15-30 sec
-Encoding to STM is primarily acoustic
32
Long-Term Memory
-Permanent Storage
-Unknown upper limit to capacity
-Encoding into LTM is primarily semantic (meaning-making)
33
Two Types of Long-Term Memory
1. Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory) - conscious recall
2. Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory) - unconscious recall
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2 Types of Explicit Memory
1. Episodic Memory
2. Semantic Memory
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Episodic Memory
Memory of events you have personally experienced
36
Semantic Memory
Your general knowledge of facts, information
37
3 Types of Implicit Memory
1. Procedural Memory
2. Classical Conditioning
3. Priming
38
Procedural Memory
Learning motor skills, physical actions - motor/muscle memory
ex. riding a bike
39
Priming
More likely to think of something similar to something you just saw
ex. you just saw the color red and then you're asked to pick a flavor of ice cream, you may pick cherry
40
Retrieval Cue
Any stimulus that assists in memory retrieval
41
Priming
Occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus
42
Positive Priming
Speeds up processing
ex. Complete the following word while I grab hot food: S__P
Complete the same while I leave to take a bath S__P
(SOUP,SOAP)
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Negative Priming
Slows down processing
ex. For each word, say the ink color out loud: RED, GREEN
44
Stroop Effect
When we have competing and conflicting information when it comes to verbal and visual info.
45
Context-Dependent Memory (Context Effect)
We are better at retrieving info on the same environmental context in which the information was learned
ex. taking a test where you learned the content
46
State-Dependent Memory (State dependency effect)
We are better at remembering info when we are in the same internal state (drug, comfort, pain, mood, etc.) that we were in when the info was encoded
ex. chewing gum while studying and then while taking the best
47
Retrieval
The process of finding info stored in memory
48
Free Recall Example
Can be harder and more mental work
ex. free-response/essay questions
49
Cued Recall Example
ex. fill in the blank questions
50
Recognition Example
ex. Multiple choice, matching questions
51
Relearning Example
ex. Revisiting bio/biochem for the MCAT
52
Flashbulb Memory
People can (or at least claim to) remember great detail about their episodic memories of particularly emotionally arousing events
ex. 9/11
53
Eidetic Memory
-Photographic Memory
The ability to vividly recall images from memory after only a few instances of exposure with high precision for a brief time after exposure without using a mnemonic device
54
Reproductive Memory
Accurate retrieval of information from memory, without significant alteration; have had many exposures - basically, that you can remember something quite accurately (different from Eidetic bc of more #s of exposures)
55
Prospective Memory
Remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time, such was remembering to do your next homework assignment before our next class; using a trigger to remember something you want to do later
ex. mental alarm clock
56
Dual Coding Theory
A theory that holds that the combination of words with visuals provides us with two different channels for later recall, which assists in memory retrieval. Thus, learning works better when words are presented with relevant images or such images are imagined by the learner
*Encodes both words and visual images
ex. Burger King commercials
57
Levels of Processing Model
Focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory; predicts the deeper that information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last
58
Reminiscence Bump
Older adults generally remember events they experienced from 10 to 30 years old better than any other time period, including more recent time periods
59
Practice Effects
The improvement that would be expected to occur simply from repeated exposure to a specific memory test ; you remember things better with more practice
60
Method of Loci
A method of memory retention in which the individual uses visualized spatial information (such as the street on the way to their home) to recall lists of words to be memorized.
AKA Memory Journey, Memory Palace, or Mind Palace
61
Peg Words
A memory technique that involves connecting words to numbers and creates and association to improve retention. The item-number pairs often rhyme to assist in recollection
62
Intrusion Errors
Substitution of an often semantically meaningful word during free and serial recall of word lists
ex. word list, substitute a word on the list for one that wasn't on the list (dog instead of bear)
63
Reconstructive Process
Each time a memory is retrieved, the memory trace is strengthened, but also potentially altered because the memory systems are subject to error
-Related to the misinformation effect
64
Displacement
Occurs in the short-term memory when one item in the list to be remembered bumps out another
-Intrusion error related to the amount of info coming in
-Most people can only store 7 (+/- 2) items in STM
ex. replacing numbers in a phone number with the wrong digit
65
Interference
When competing material makes it more difficult to encode or retrieve information
66
Proactive Interference
(Mnemonic PRoactive = PRior interferes)
-Prior learning interferes with new learning
ex. Studying French and Italian at the same time for an upcoming trip
67
Retroactive Interference
(Mnemonic REtroactive = REcent Interferes)
-Recent learning interferes with old learning
ex. Start studying French after learning Italian a few months prior and having trouble remembering Italian
68
Memory and Cognition in Normal Aging (Improvements, Stable, and Declines)
Improves:
-Semantic Memory improves until about 60, then stabilizes
-Emotional intelligence (reasoning in emotionally charged situations or "Wisdom")
Stable:
-Semantic memory/ Implicit memory
-Crystallized intelligence (ability to retrieve general info)
Declines:
-Short-term memory
-Episodic Memory
-Source memory (forgetting where they learned something)
-Divided attention (multitasking)
-Operational span in working memory (number of items remembered)
-Processing speed
69
Source Monitoring Error
Misidentifying the origins of our knowledge
-AKA Source amnesia
-Source info is stored in our source memory
70
False Memories
An invented or distorted recollection of an episodic event that did not actually happen; falsely remembering something
-can be heavily influenced
-ex. child abuse
71
Misinformation Effect
When episodic memories become less accurate because post-event info works backwards in time to distort the memory of the original event through retroactive interference
72
Anterograde Amnesia
Can't remember new things; A loss of the ability to create new (anterograde) memories after the event that caused the amnesia, leading to partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before remain intact
-damage to hippocampus
73
Retrograde Amnesia
A loss of access to retrograde (past) memories, either events that occurred or info that was learned, before the onset of injury or disease
74
Korsakoff's syndrome
Chronic memory disorder caused by severe thiamine (via. B1) deficiency, most commonly caused by alcohol misuse
75
Nonassociative Learning
When an organism changes the magnitude of its response due to the repeated exposure to a particular stimulus
-Habituation
76
Habituation
Occurs when response diminishes as the organism becomes accustomed to a repeated stimulus
ex. overhead light buzzes; eventually you no longer notice it
77
Dishabituation
Occurs when an organism that had become habituated to a stimulus recovers its responsiveness because of the removal of the stimulus and/or the experience of a different stimulus
ex. overhead light buzzes, you leave the room to use the bathroom, you come back and notice the sound again
78
Sensitization
Occurs when instead of exhibiting habituation, the person demonstrates increasing responsiveness to the stimulus; usually associated with increase arousal
ex. overhead light buzzes and it becomes distracting
79
Desensitization
Occurs when the person notices the stimulus but is unbothered by it
ex. overhead light buzzes, but you aren't bothered by it
80
Associative Learning
Involves something that is either a threat or an opportunity
81
Classical Conditioning
A process on which two stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes
-Associative Learning
-Closely connected to the behaviorist perspective (class 4)
82
Ivan Pavlov
Described classical conditioning with his famous dog experiment
83
Unconditioned stimulus
-UCS or US
Present dog with food
84
Unconditioned response
-UCR or UR
Dogs salivating at the presence of food
-becomes the conditioned response
85
Neutral Stimulus
-NS
Bell ringing- first ring it without food to make sure the dogs don't salivate, then pair bell ringing with food presentation for salivation
-becomes the conditioned stimulus
86
Conditioned Stimulus
-CS
The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and will produce the conditioned response (salivation without food)
87
Conditioned Response
-CR
Salivation at bell ringing (now the conditioned stimulus) withOUT the presence food
88
Signaling stimulus
The bell whether it is technically neutral or conditioned
-A stimulus that tells you something else is going to happen
89
Classical Conditioning Experiment Overview
Before Conditioning:
-Unconditioned Stimulus (food) produced Unconditioned Response (salivation)
-Neutral Stimulus (bell) produces NO RESPONSE
During Conditioning:
-Neutral Stimulus (bell) is paired with Unconditioned Stimulus (food) to produce Unconditioned Response (salivation)
After Conditioning:
-Neutral Stimulus becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (bell) and produces the Conditioned Response (salivation), which was previously the Unconditioned Response
90
Acquisition Phase
Neutral Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus are paired, strength of conditioned stimulus increases;
The process in which the rate of the reinforced response increases
91
Extinction
A response to a stimulus dies off; the fading or disappearance of a behavior that was previously learned by association with another event
92
Spontaneous Recovery
The reemergence of a conditioned response to an extinguished conditioned stimulus with the passage of time since extinction
93
Generalization
Occurs when stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response
ex. dog salivated to any bell
94
Discrimination
Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is distinguished from other similar stimuli and is the only thing that elicits the conditioned response
ex. dog only salivated to exact bell from study
95
Operant Conditioning
A process in which reinforcement (pleasurable consequences) and punishment (unpleasant consequences) are employed to mold behavioral responses; behavior is molded based on rewards and punishments
-you operate or act on the environment
-associative learning
96
B.F. Skinner
-Founder of the Behaviorist Perspective
-Invented an operant conditioning chamber ("Skinner box") to test how animal behavior can be conditioned with reinforcement and punishment
97
Positive Reinforcement
Rewarding by adding something pleasurable for good behavior to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated; best way to go
ex. given money for doing chores
98
Negative Reinforcement
Taking away something unpleasant or removing a negative stimuli for good behavior to increase the likelihood of the behavior being repeated
ex. not having to take a bath after doing chores
99
Reinforcement
Anything that increases the likelihood of a desired behavior
100
Punishment
Anything that decreases the likelihood of an undesired behavior
101
Positive Punishment
Adds something undesirable to decrease the likelihood of behavior happening again
ex. scolding/yelling
102
Negative Punishment
Taking away something pleasurable to decrease the likelihood of behavior happening again
ex. no dessert at dinner, being grounded
103
Dopamine Reward Pathway
Begins in the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and connects to the nucleus accumbens
104
What activates the Dopamine Reward Pathway?
Rewards activate the pathway and lead to dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens
105
How do drugs influence the Dopamine Reward Pathway?
Addictive drugs stimulate the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and thus reinforces drug use
106
What areas of the limbic system are implied in reward?
Amygdala and Hypothalamus
107
Primary Reinforcer
-change the rate of response WITHOUT previous learning
Something innately desirable
ex. food, affection, praise
108
Primary Punishment
-change the rate of response WITHOUT previous learning
Something that is innately undesirable
ex. scolding, pain, rejection
109
Secondary Reinforcement
-stimuli learned to be rewarding
Something CONDITIONED to be desirable
ex. money, test scores, reward points
110
Secondary Punishment
-stimuli learned to be punishing
Something CONDITIONED to be Undesirable
ex. failing a test, losing money/ debt/ fines
111
Token Economy
A system in which behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and can later be exchanged for desirable stimuli, such as playing time, screen time, toys, activities, or tangible items
-has been found to be effective in managing some types of psychiatric disorders and is also used regularly with children
-money is and example of a token
112
Reinforcement Schedules (types)
1. Variable Ratio
2. Fixed Ratio
3. Variable Interval
4. Fixed Interval
113
Variable Ratio
Provides reward or reinforcement after an UNPREDICTABLE NUMBER of behaviors
ex. posting on social media doesn't always constitute the same number of likes or comments, so you keep opening the app
ex. gambling
114
Fixed Ratio
Provides reward or reinforcement after a SET NUMBER of behaviors (can be 1:1 w/ continuous schedule)
ex. get commission for every sale you make
ex. every fifth coffee is free
ex. salad punch card
115
Variable Interval
Provides rewards or reinforcement after an UNPREDICTABLE or INCONSISTENT period of TIME
ex. fishing with a catch limit
ex. waiting for the tram at the airport
116
Fixed Interval
Provides reward or reinforcement after a SET or CONSISTENT period of TIME
ex. weekly allowance
ex. getting paid every other week
117
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule (Definition, Responses Rate, Extinction Rate, and Notable Behavior Patterns)
Def. - Reinforcer given after EVERY single response, 1:1 ratio (fixed ratio)
Resp. Rate - Slow
Ext. Rate - Fast
Notable Behavior Patterns - best way to teach new behavior, but has the fastest extinction rate
ex. used for training a dog to sit, but want to migrate the dog to variable ratio
118
Fixed Ratio Schedule (Definition, Responses Rate, Extinction Rate, and Notable Behavior Patterns)
Def. - Reinforcer given after a set number of responses
Resp. Rate - Fast
Ext. Rate - Medium
Notable behavior patterns - Post-reinforcement pause may be analogous to procrastination - if you buy four coffee and get fifth free, you won't be so eager to buy the next four
119
Variable Ratio Schedule (Definition, Responses Rate, Extinction Rate, and Notable Behavior Patterns)
Def. - Reinforcer given after a variable number of responses
Resp. Rate - Fast
Ext. Rate - Slow
Notable Behavior patterns - Slowest rate of extinction behavior persists the longest despite the lack of reinforcer) bc you never know when you'll be rewarded
ex. gambling
120
Fixed Interval Schedule (Definition, Responses Rate, Extinction Rate, and Notable Behavior Patterns)
Def. - Reinforcer given after set amount of time
Resp. Rate - Medium
Ext. Rate - Medium
Notable Behavior patterns - Long pause in responding following reinforcement, followed by accelerated rate
ex. don't feel like doing work in the beginning, but do more closer to payment
121
Variable Interval Schedule (Definition, Responses Rate, Extinction Rate, and Notable Behavior Patterns)
Def. - Reinforcer given after variable amount of time
Resp. Rate - Medium-Fast
Ext. Rate - Slow
Notable Behavior patterns - Tends to produce a low to moderate steady rate of responding
ex. shuttle not on schedule at airport, but you'll stick around and wait for it
122
Extinction Burst
The increase in response rate that typically occurs when a previously reinforced response is initially no longer paired with the reinforcer;
This is especially likely to happen when continuous reinforcement is removed abruptly, as demonstrated by what you do first when your remote control does not respond
ex. batteries in remote die, so you press buttons a bunch
123
Shaping
Refers to the rewarding of successive, closer approximation of the desired behavior
-ex. teaching a baby to walk, every time the baby walks, you clap
124
Instinctive Drift
Instinctive behaviors might interfere with what you're trying tot get an animal to do; animal might do instinctive behavior instead of what you want it to do
125
Mirror Neurons
Neurons that fire when we observe a behavior and then try the same behavior we observed
126
Vicarious Emotions
Emotions that are contagious
127
Insight Learning
A process in which the solution to a problem suddenly comes to us in what we might describe as a "flash of insight"; Wolfgang Kohler found that monkeys did this
128
Latent Learning
A process in which learning occurs without any immediate expression or obvious reinforcement; later, when helpful, this learning demonstrates itself;
Learning without being aware that you're learning something until you need to show that knowledge
ex. hearing a song on the radio and then singing it at a party without ever looking at the lyrics
