Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Tropical ecosystem management > Class 10 - mangroves and coral reefs > Flashcards

Class 10 - mangroves and coral reefs Flashcards

1
Q

Are mangrove ecosystems mixed?

A

Very mixed ecosystems because of tides, one hour for birds and insects, the next for fish and prawns, and freshwater fish mingle with saltwater fish

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Define mangroves

A

Trees or large shrubs including ferns and palms that normally grow in or adjacent to the intertidal zone and have adapted special adaptations to survive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

How many mangrove species are there?

A

73 species in total, 38 core species

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What characterises the soil?

A

Soil characterised by regular inundation, variable salinity, from deep peats to shallow sand

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

How do mangroves exclude salt to survive?

A

Using filtration at the roots – some deposit it on bark, dump it in their leaves, actively secrete salt from the leaves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Characterise each type of mangrove root

A

Stilt roots (looping, branch like, travels some distance away from the water), Pneumatophores (upwards extensions into the air above the water), knee roots (rounded, knob-like, extending up into the air), buttress roots (extension of the trunk, plank like form extending above the soil)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What do all roots have?

A

All roots have abundant lenticels or pores to enable gas exchange – when submerged they close and oxygen is used by the plant and CO2 is absorbed into the seawater

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

How do mangroves reproduce?

A

All use water and tides to disperse offspring and some have developed vivipary where trees release growing plants rather than seeds or fruits. Most seedlings settle close to their parents

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Can mangroves survive intense salinity?

A

Some species can survive semi-permanent inundation or periods where salinity is greater than seawater and others cannot survive any salinity equal to pure seawater

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Where do mangroves thrive?

A

Mangroves thrive where seawater is diluted by high rainfall, groundwater flows or rivers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

How tall can mangroves be if conditions are good?

A

30 meters or more

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Where are mangroves found?

A

Mangroves are found in river deltas, estuaries (the sea has flooded a former river valley), coastal lagoons, along open coastlines

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Are mangroves ever found without a connection to the sea + example?

A

Some mangroves are found inland without any connection to the sea – on Christmas island a small forest like this may have survived since growing at sea level 120,000 years ago

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Define the three types of mangrove formations

A

Fringing (narrow strips tracing a shoreline, lagoon or channel), basin (broader formations away from water’s edge), overwash (patches, islands of mangroves entirely covered by waters at high tides)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

How much area is covered by mangroves?

A

Total area of mangroves: 150,000 km2 = conciderable decline because of humans – less than 1% of TF

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What happened around Java?

A

Around Java, losses are so extensive that there is almost no indication that there were once mangroves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

In how many countries are mangroves found?

A

Mangroves are found in 123 countries, over 2/3 in just 12 countries, Indonesia number 1 with 20% of all

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What species extends from SA to the red sea and across the pacific islands?

A

Avicennia marina

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What species extends all of West Africa, South America, Mexico and Florida?

A

Rhizophona mangle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Define the two realms of mangroves?

A

IWP (Eastern) and AEP (western) – almost no overlapping species with only one fern in common

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q
A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

How many species do the two realms have?

A

The IWP has 62 unique species and the AEP only has 12 – but they cover almost half of global mangrove area each

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Do mangroves have one evolutionary origin?

A

Mangroves may have developed independently as many as 15 times

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

When did mangroves first occur?

A

60 million years ago

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What extinction event had a big effect on evolution of mangroves?

A

Pleistocebe glacations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Define the 7 mangrove provinces

A

West America, East America, West and central Africa, East Africa, Indo-Andaman, South-East Asia, Australasia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Why are mangroves important?

A

Mangroves are rich stores of biomass, highly productive, and exporters of nutrients both inland and offshore. Mangroves help bind and consolidate sediments and reduce erosion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Define the factors influencing theor survival and growth

A

Salinity, inundation, sediment type

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What sediments do mangroves like?

A

Most species require soft, muddy sediments, but Pemphis acidula likes higher elevations in rocky/sandy conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Do mangroves build land?

A

In the Caribbean, some areas rise at over 4mm per year – many mangrove peats are several meters deep, so they do “build land”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Are mangroves productive ecosystems?

A

In ideal conditions, mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems on earth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Where is the biomass of mangroves held?

A

55-85% of above-ground biomass is held in the trunk and branches, and 15-17% is in the roots. High below-ground biomass

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Define NPP

A

The rate of increase in standing biomass minus the rate of loss either through production of dead matter or grazing by herbivores

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

How much of mangrove NPP incorporates into local sediments?

A

10%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Do mangroves store carbon?

A

Mangroves store significant carbon compared to how little area they cover

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What plants do mangroves support?

A

Epiphytes, algae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Do animals eat mangrove leaves?

A

Mangrove leaves are thick and waxy and hard to eat, but are along with their flowers, fruits and seedlings eaten by insects, crabs, and browsers like rhinoceros and monkeys

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What is the role of crabs?

A

Crabs play a critical role in reducing nutrient loss from mangroves by consuming and carrying litter into their burrows. Experiments show that if crabs were removed, tree growth would decrease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What are the main predators in mangrove forests?

A

Tiger, crocodile, birds, crabs and prawns

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What do animals use mangroves for?

A

Many also use mangroves as shelter from predators, many birds use them as nesting or roosting grounds, many use them to burrow, fish use it for breeding and nursery

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Define all the most present animals

A

Molluscs (oysters and mussels), crustaceans (crabs and prawns), insects (moth and butterflies, ants, mosquitoes, sand flies, midgets), fish (600 species in IWP, mudskippers), reptiles and amphibians (cat snake, crocodile, turtles, crab-eating frog), birds (Egrets, herons, kingfishers, hawks, storks, pelicans, ibis), mammals (howler monkeys, deer, three-toed sloth an endangered species only found on a tiny island off Panama, racoons, cats and tigers, manatees, dolphins, hippopotamus, bats), microscopic life (fungi, bacteria, viruses)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What is the role of mangroves for migrating birds?

A

Mangroves are very important in supporting migrating birds, both overwintering and as stopover points

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Define some adjacent ecosystems

A

Salt marshes, salt pans (sometimes blurred boundaries), swamp forest, flooded grasslands or savannas

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

How are nutrients from mangroves transfered out into the sea?

A

Shrimps and others move out of mangroves as they grow, and therefore transfer mangrove nutrients into oceanic ecosystems

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

What is happening in the Orinco delta in Venezuela?

A

A mangrove tribe lives – they travel by boats and live in houses on stilts, largely eat fish and crabs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

What are the 3 main ES?

A

Wood, fishing, protection of coastlines

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

How much mangrove area was lost between 1980 and 2005?

A

20%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

What drives mangrove losses?

A

Conversion to agriculture, aquaculture, urban and industrial space, timber production

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Did earlier societies have mangroves?

A

There was a close connection between the earliest societies and mangroves – mangroves were larger than today

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

What ES goods are derived from mangrove forests?

A

Wood products (poles, resistance to termites , used for boats and fishing gear, resistance to rotting in salt water). Fuelwood (firewood and charcoal), tannins (crucial role in preparation of leather, to make dyes), roofing, food (mangrove fruits, flower stalks, Nypa used for alcoholic drink and vinegar and sugar, nectar for honey, waterbirds, insect larvae), medicines (leaves, fruits, bark, treat bowel disorders, stomach ulcers, hepatitis, tumours, sores, asthma, contraceptive), fodder (dietary supplement for camels and goats)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Why do mangroves produce many nutrients for fish?

A

Because they are highly productive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Do tourists use mangroves?

A

Tourists usually dislike mangroves, but increasing boat tours and boardwalks, bird watching

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

What do mangroves do against pollution?

A

Mangroves constrain water movement and trap sediments, and extract nutrients from water = they perform a valuable service of removing excess nutrients and pollutants from sewage and aquaculture

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Is artificial coastal defences better than mangroves?

A

Artificial coastal defence can be costly and sometimes less effective than a belt of mangroves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

What is REDD?

A

Political, legal or economic means be employed as encouragement for countries to maintain forest

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

What is the mangrove ES monetary value?

A

2000-9000 USD per hectare per year

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

What does deforestation do to coastline elevation?

A

With deforestation, mangrove sediments shrink or settle following drainage = lower overall elevations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Are mangroves deforested for agriculture?

A

Even though the value of agriculture on mangrove land is low, some areas have been converted to arable or grazing land – areas are below sea level so they require maintenance of sea walls

59
Q

What is one of the strongest drivers of mangrive clearence?

A

Aquaculture

60
Q

What happens when mangroves are harvested with no management framework?

A

Sometimes ferns quickly colonise deforested areas making it so larger trees cannot regrow, browsing by camels or goats can lead to over harvest

61
Q

Can mangroves tolerate pollution?

A

Mangroves can survive higher pollution than other ecosystems such as coral reefs

62
Q

In which sediments do mangroves thrive?

A

Mangroves thrive in areas of shifting or growing sediments, but where sediments build up very rapidly there can be mass mortality

63
Q

What is an increasing threat to water salinity and mangroves?

A

An increasing threat is the reduction in freshwater inputs from upstream because of dams, irrigation

64
Q

Are mangrove losses bigger or smaller than general forest loss?

A

Rates of mangrove loss are three to four times higher than overall forest loss

65
Q

What is some of the first evidence of mangrove forest management?

A

There is evidence of forest management back to 1759 in Bangladesh and India

66
Q

Ideas for sustainable management of mangroves

A

Many places actively plant or encourage growth of mangroves. Mangrove plantation has increased for its ES like visual aesthetics, reduced pollution, control of insects and rodent pests. It would be great to allow mangroves to migrate inland when seas rise. Some countries have legal protection of mangroves – not always effective or enforced

67
Q

How much of mangrove forest is protected?

A

There are 1200 protected areas worldwide, 25% of all mangrove areas

68
Q

Examples of international protection frameworks

A

The world heritage convention, the Ramsar convention (159 countries), ENESCO’s man and the biosphere programme

69
Q

Should local communities be involved in maintanence?

A

The involvement of local communities is crucial and often is more effective, especially in the Philippines this shows

70
Q

Where is there by far most mangroves, corals and seagrass?

A

South East Asia, Oceania

71
Q

In what distance from shore do most mangroves live?

A

0-50 meters into the ocean

72
Q

What are buttress roots good for?

A

Giving extra support and stability in wet soil

73
Q

What are stilt roots good for?

A

Giving extra support against waves

74
Q

What are aerial roots good for

A

Getting O2 from the air

75
Q

How are the world bank encouraging mangrove restoration in Indonesia?

A

CO2 compensation

76
Q

What does coral polyp nurtition depend on?

A

The symbiotic algae xooxanthellae

77
Q

Where does a fringing reef start?

A

Right off the coast

78
Q

What is an ecosystem service of coral reefs?

A

Important fish breeding grounds

79
Q

What is coral bleaching?

A

If a coral becomes stressed, the algae leaves the coral, and it is left bleached and vulnerable, after a while, it dies

80
Q

What causes coral bleacing?

A

Changing ocean temperatures, pollution, too much sunlight, extreme low tides

81
Q

What happened during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill

A

A drilling of 1500 m, explosion, oil leakage lasted 3 months

82
Q

Define coral reefs

A

Massive limestone structures that provide food and shelter for marine life

83
Q

How long does it take to build a coral reef?

A

They are built over hundreds or thousands of years

84
Q

Examples of reef animals?

A

Sponges, corals, molluscs, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, fish, amphibians, sea slugs, Christmas tree worms, crabs, lobster, shrimp, sea cucumbers, sea turtles, sea snakes

85
Q

Example of reef builders (of limestone)

A

Calcareous algae that has limestone in its tissue, hard corals, sediments, and materials that are cemented together by cementing organisms such as the coralline algae, sponges, or fire coral

86
Q

Examples of reef eroders (bioeroders)

A

Reefs erode by bioeroders that eat or burrow into the structure, sponges, worms, sea urchins, parrotfish, some starfish, grazing fish, urchins

87
Q

How many species of fish are found in coral reefs?

A

More than 4000 species of fish live in coral reefs

88
Q

Define corals

A

Simple invertebrates from the group called cnidarians

89
Q

Define Cnidarians

A

Large stomach cavity, stinging cells used to capture prey

90
Q

Are corals linked to each other?

A

Corals often grow into huge colonies which can be made up of thousands of individual polyps which link to their neighbors with tissue that includes their stomach – one eats, everyone eats

91
Q

What is the size of polyps?

A

1mm to 25cm

92
Q

What do corals need?

A

Abundant sunlight (since zooxanthellae, their symbiotic algae needs sunlight, so most grown no deeper than 45 m), warm temperatures (16 to 29 degrees), low nutrient levels (too many can create conditions that favor other plants), clear, sediment-free water, salty water, hard substrate (hard surface to attach to)

93
Q

Define sediments

A

Small particles of earth, rock, sand

94
Q

Which increase of water temp can cause bleacing?

A

1-2 degrees

95
Q

How old are coral ecosystems?

A

One of the oldest ecosystems on earth. Modern coral reefs have existed for 240 million years. Most of our reefs are 5,000-10,000 years old

96
Q

Are corals adaptable?

A

They have shown a remarkable ability to adapt and survive

97
Q

What are humans doing to corals?

A

Human activity is making them die – in SE Asia 88% are at risk

98
Q

How much of the world is coral reefs?

A

Coral reefs cover 284,300 km2, less than 0.1% of oceans

99
Q

Where can you find coral reefs?

A

They are found within the tropics between 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south of equator, in 3 broad regions: Caribbean and Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Red Sea, and Pacific and SE Asia. Indonesia has the most and the greatest species diversity

100
Q

What are the five classes of reefs?

A

Five main classes of reefs: Fringing (right around islands and continents, separated from the shore only by a shallow lagoon), barrier (also parallel to coastline, but separated by deep wide lagoons), atolls (rings creating a protected lagoon found in the middle of the sea, usually from sinking islands or on top of underwater volcanoes), bank or platform (open ocean reef, no attachment to the coastline), patch (small areas that occur in shallow waters and lagoons)

101
Q

What are the reef zones?

A

The intertidal zone (includes beaches that filters sediments, mangroves that filters sediments and act as nurseries for reef species), logoons (deep water, seagrasses habitat and nursery ground, stabilizes sand), reef flat (shallow platform extending out from the shore), back reef (where the lagoon rises up towards the reef flat), reef crest (highest point of the reef facing the ocean), forereef (where the reef slope falls steeply towards the seabed)

102
Q

At what depth is the diversity and abundance of life greatest?

A

10-20 m

103
Q

What happens at deeper waters?

A

As corals grow at the deeper waters of the forereef they become replaced with sponges and other corals that do not depend on sunlight

104
Q

Define hard corals

A

Reef builders, limestone skeleton, 6 tentacles, depend on zooxanthellae, tropical waters, example: Brain coral

105
Q

Define soft corals

A

Colourful, non-reef builders, soft and bendable, 8 tentacles, not all depend on zooxanthellae, both tropical and colder waters: Example: Tree coral

106
Q

What is significant about the great barrier reef?

A

The single largest biological structure in the world: The great barrier reef (2300 km long)

107
Q

How do corals build reef?

A

Hard coral polyps grow within a hard cup where it lays down a skeleton of limestone. When the polyp dies, the skeleton stays and is used as foundation by a new polyp

108
Q

How many reef-building corals exist?

A

794

109
Q

What are the 10 growth forms?

A

Branching, elkhorn (sturdy, flattened branches), digitate (finger-like), encrusting (thin layer), table (broad horizontal surface), foliose (plate-like), massive (ball-shaped), submassive (knobs or columns), mushroom, flower/cup

110
Q

What happens to growth where waves are strong?

A

Where waves are strong, corals grow into robust mounds or flat

111
Q

What happens where waves are chill?

A

Where waves are less, corals become more intricate and create delicate branches

112
Q

How do you calculate reef growth?

A

Reef growth = reef construction minus reef erosion

113
Q

What is the single main cause of reef decline?

A

El-Nino events (out of direct human control)

114
Q

What are the direct causes of reef decline by humans?

A

Extraction of corals and other organisms, nonregulated tourism, ship groundings, anchor damage, eutrophication, climate change (sea warming, rise, acidification, more storms, stronger and more frequent el Nino events)

115
Q

What are the indirect causes of reef decline caused by humans?

A

Coastal alteration, sedimentation, pollution including oil, agrochemicals and plankton blooms, climate change (coastal erosion, increased fresh water runoff, elevated nutrients)

116
Q

When did tropical cyclones start showing a trend of increased strength?

A

1990s

117
Q

What is a very well-studies cause of destruction in reefs?

A

Overfishing

118
Q

What characterises fishing in the tropics?

A

In the tropics, fishing is often artisanal where species with low market values are extracted and sold for domestic consumption (exceptions with high values are sharks, lobsters and sea cucumbers)

119
Q

How is aquarium trade harming reefs?

A

Aquarium trade is harming reefs, for example in costa rica where 200 colonies of fish were extracted, people also want live rock (alive corals). Many people who have aquariums will never know that much of their coral and fish are extracted illegally

120
Q

Why are reef organisms also extracted?

A

For souvenirs, in Costa Rica, so many Pocillopora meandrina and Pocillopora eydouxi have been harvested that they have disappeared from there

121
Q

What has led to more stable population levels?

A

Effective management

122
Q

Why do divers cause damage?

A

Direct contact with corals, colony fragmentation, hand feeding of fish - Proper diver briefing should help

123
Q

What did boat groundings do?

A

Boat groundings caused extensive damage in Panama in the 90s, where large sections of reef was destroyed and colonies crushed

124
Q

Example of a restoration effort after a boat grounding destroyed a reef?

A

To restore, broken fragments were collected, cemented to concrete blocks and transported a bit away – excellent results

125
Q

Is anchor damage widespread?

A

Yes

126
Q

Do smaller or bigger broken branches survive?

A

Smaller broken branches have demonstrated a lower likelihood of survival than larger ones

127
Q

What have phytoplankton blooms caused?

A

Phytoplankton blooms on reefs in Panama and Costa Rica have caused mass mortalities of corals, invertebrates and some fish in 1985

128
Q

Can corals survive phytoplankton blooms?

A

It is likely that corals often experience these and are able to survive except when the blooms are massive

129
Q

Where do blooms occur more often?

A

In places with human settlements, they occur more often due to added nutrients

130
Q

What happens to zooxanthellae when temps rise?

A

bleaching = reduced reef calcification, NPP

131
Q

What do storms do?

A

Increased freshwater runoff, unusual wave patterns break corals

132
Q

What does reduction of pH (acidification) do?

A

Reduces coral calcification, impaired development of larvae which interferes with early skeletal development, metamorphosis and ability to settle. It also affects fish – their senses are blocked so they lose the ability to detect predators

133
Q

What does El-Nino do?

A

El-Nino exposes reefs to both extreme warming and low thermal anomalies which cause bleaching

134
Q

What changes to the coastal zone may occur and what does it do?

A

Urbanization, agriculture, mariculture, or construction of tourist facilities = sedimentation, changes in nutrients and ocean currents

135
Q

What will a canal across Nicaragua do?

A

A canal in Nicaragua between oceans will lead to increased sedimentation, oil pollution, and invasive species in both directions

136
Q

What leads to increased sedimentation and what does it do?

A

Mining, deforestation (agriculture, construction, cattle ranching) and poor land management leads to increased sedimentation = reduce light penetrating the water so corals degrade slowly or die quickly depending on the load

137
Q

What are the main pollutions?

A

Eutrophication, oil and agrochemicals

138
Q

Define Eutrophication

A

Eutrophication is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched with nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus), leading to excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, and phykoplankton blooms

139
Q

What occured in El Salvador in 1993?

A

In El Salvador in 1993, 2 oil spills caused corals to die

140
Q

How does oil enter the ocean?

A

Oil comes into the ocean from power plants, mining, boats

141
Q

What are other pollutants than pesticides that may affect corals?

A

Plastic, DDT, polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – all have been found in oysters

142
Q

Why might reefs drown?

A

If water rises more rapidly than the rate of coral reef creation, then reefs could drown

143
Q

What does coastal erosion lead to?

A

Heavy sedimentation

144
Q

Why is coastal circulation expected to decrease in the pacific and what does it do?

A

Circulation in the pacific is predicted to decrease because of changes in wind patterns – diminished larval immigration and genetic connectivity between reefs

Tropical ecosystem management (13 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions