Civil Rights: The Development of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-60

Question 1

What was the ‘American System’?

Answer 1

The USA has a federal system of government. It’s divided into states which can grant their own laws. However, each state also comes under the umbrella of the federal government in Washington DC, which passes federal laws that cover the whole country.

Question 2

What is the order of the American System?

Answer 2

1. Constitution -> Legislative (the U.S Capitol) -> Congress -> House of Representatives OR -> Senate

Or

2. Constitution -> Executive (The White House) -> President -> Vice President

Or

3. Constitution -> Judicial -> Supreme Court

Question 3

Why is the American System / Government so big?

Answer 3

The government has 3 branches which in theory balance each other out, so no one branch is too powerful. This is known as ‘checks and balances’.

Question 4

What are the challenges of the ‘American System’?

Answer 4

This system can cause problems because different states often want different things. States can pass their own laws, but the Supreme Court can overrule them.

Question 5

READ OVER:

Timeline of Black People in America

Answer 5

• 1600s:
  Africans were first brought to America as slaves. America was a British colony until it became independent in 1776.
• 1800s:
  New states were created as America expanded west. It raised the question: would these new states be free states or slave states?

-1861:
The American Civil War broke out between the anti-slavery northern states and the pro-slavery southern states.

-1865:
The South was defeated and President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Declaration, ending slavery. However, he was killed before he could work on peace.

• Late 1800s:
  The next Presidents/governments either decided not to help African Americans, or were actively racist. Blacks were forced into poverty and there was increasing discrimination.

Question 6

How was Segregation & Discrimination in the 1950s?

Answer 6

In the 1950s, all across the USA black people faced segregation (being separated from whites) and discrimination (being treated unfairly because of their race).

Question 7

How was segregation in the North?

Answer 7

In the North, segregation was caused by discrimination. Black people had the worst jobs and houses.

Question 8

How was segregation treated in the South?

Answer 8

In the South, segregation was enforced by law. There were laws which said black people must have separate facilities to white people.

Question 9

What was the Jim Crow Laws?

Answer 9

• Segregation laws (called the Jim Crow Laws) worked on the theory of ‘separate but equal’ – this said that segregation was legal if the white and black facilities were equal. This principle was backed by the Supreme Court in a famous court case (Plessy v. Ferguson) in 1896.
• For example: All public facilities had separate sections for white people and black people. Black people could be
  thrown out or even arrested if they didn’t stay in the ‘colored’ section.

Question 10

What were some Southern Attitudes on Blacks?

Answer 10

Many Southern white people saw black people as inferior and unintelligent. The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was a racist group who attacked non-whites. Many police officers and judges were members.

Question 11

Whats was the effect of World War 2 on black people?

Answer 11

Millions of black Americans fought in WW2 and worked in the war factories. They hoped for more equality when the war ended. It seemed ridiculous to them that America was fighting for freedom and democracy in Europe, when there was so much inequality back home.

Question 12

How were the Blacks Voting Rights treated?

Answer 12

White people in the South found ways to stop black people from voting in elections:

• White gangs attacked black people at voting places
• Most states had a literacy test to register to vote. Black people were given a much harder test than white people.

Question 13

What is a Civil Rights Activist?

Answer 13

A civil rights activist is someone who campaigns for equal rights and encourages others to do the same. In the 1950s, many people were fighting for an end to segregation.

Question 14

Why did the civil rights movement grow in the 1950s?

Answer 14

• WW2 persuaded some people that blacks deserved more rights. Black soldiers wanted the integration they saw abroad.
• TELEVISION made people more aware of news events and racial inequality.
• RESEARCH showed that segregated
  education harmed black children.
• The COLD WAR made the US
  government more sensitive to criticism from other countries
• COMMUNITIES CHANGED as poor blacks moved North and more liberal whites moved South.
• NEW INDUSTRIES in the South brought more jobs for black people.

Question 15

Who was fighting for civil rights?

Answer 15

• NAACP
• CORE
• Church Organisations
• RCNL
• Universities

Question 16

What was the role of the NAACP in the civil rights movement?

Answer 16

NAACP - National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

1. The NAACP focused on fighting for civil rights in the courts.
2. The NAACP knew it was vital that the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling was overthrown. So they had two ways of challenging Plessy:

• They showed that current facilities were not equal
• They argued that even if facilities were equal, segregation still harmed black peoples’ chances in life

3. They won most of the court cases they fought in the 1950s. However – winning a case didn’t mean it was always enforced.

Question 17

What was the role of CORE in the civil rights movement?

Answer 17

CORE - Congress of Racial Equality

1. CORE focused on fighting for civil rights through non-violent protest.
2. They used boycotts, pickets and sit-ins to get publicity for the civil rights movement. Its members were taught not to react if they were arrested or attacked.
3. Although CORE was smaller than the NAACP and worked mainly in the North, its methods influenced many local groups all over the country.

Question 18

What was the role of Church Organisations in the Civil Rights Movement?

Answer 18

1. Black church leaders were often good speakers and could organise events well.
2. They stressed non-violence (like CORE) and forgiveness.
3. Some white people liked the church organisations because they were non-violent and often willing to work with the segregated system.
4. However, others were suspicious of them because of how well organised and well supported they were. Black churches were often targets for white violence.

Question 19

What was the role of the RCNL in the civil rights movement?

Answer 19

RCNL - Regional Council of Negro Leadership

• The Regional Council of Negro Leadership campaigned for black rights within segregation and encouraged voter registration. It held several annual civil rights rallies in the
  1950s.

Question 20

What was the role of Universities in the civil rights movement?

Answer 20

Universities were often the sites of protests and rallies – students and academics could speak well and were more likely to be listened to.

Question 21

What was The Murder of Emmett Till (1955)?

Answer 21

1. Emmett Till was a black teenager from Chicago who was murdered in
   Mississippi in 1955. He was brutally beaten to death by a local shop
   owner after allegedly making sexual comments to his wife.
2. Till’s murder became famous because his mother insisted on an open casket viewing of the body, so that everyone could see his horrific injuries. This led to huge publicity and shock.
3. People were even angrier when Till’s murderers were cleared of all charges – they later sold their story to a magazine and admitted to the murder.
4. Some historians say that Till’s murder started the rapid growth of the civil rights movement

Question 22

What was the Political Opposition to Civil Rights?

Answer 22

• ‘Dixiecrats’ were Southern Democrat politicians who strongly believed in segregation, and the rights of states to make their own laws.
• Because there were so many of them in Congress, they constantly blocked any laws that would give black Americans more rights.
• Many local politicians (governors, mayors etc.) also supported segregation. There were no black judges or juries. This meant that it was very difficult for black people to get fair treatment or justice.

Question 23

EDUCATION:

What was the Topeka - Brown Case (1954)?

Answer 23

1. Linda Brown was a black girl from Topeka, Kansas who had to go to a
   ‘black’ school that was much further away than the nearest ‘white’ one.
2. In 1952 the NAACP took the case to the Supreme Court. It was called Brown v. the Board of Education. They argued that segregated schools went against the 14th Amendment (equal citizenship rights for all).

• During the case Earl Warren was appointed as Chief Justice (head of the
  Supreme Court). He did not support segregation.

Question 24

What was the result of the case?

Answer 24

• In 1954 the Supreme Court ruled that segregated education was unconstitutional. They said that schools must desegregate.
• However, they didn’t set a timescale for desegregation. A second case in 1955 (Brown II) simply gave the vague order for schools to desegregate “with all deliberate speed”.

Question 25

Why was the case significant?

Answer 25

• Brown reversed the Plessy ruling, and so sparked more legal cases for desegregation.
• The Southern ‘border’ states (those nearest the North) desegregated their schools.
• The case increased awareness of civil rights issues.

Question 26

What limitations of the case were there?

Answer 26

1. Schools in the South refused to desegregate. Many politicians called for ‘massive resistance’ to the ruling.
2. Some people set up White Citizens’ Councils to fight for segregation.
3. Membership of the KKK grew, leading to more violence against black families.
4. 11 Southern states signed the Southern Manifesto, which rejected the Brown ruling and argued for segregation.
5. There was racism in integrated schools, meaning black children’s education often still suffered.
6. Many areas only desegregated their schools partially, or very slowly.

Question 27

How did Blacks feel after the Brown Case?

Answer 27

Many black people felt they were in a worse position after Brown. Though they had gained a legal right, it was clearly difficult to make it work in practice.

Question 28

EDUCATION:

What was the Little Rock event (1957)?

Answer 28

In 1957, 25 black students were due to start at the newly-segregated Little Rock High School in Arkansas. Because of threats from white people, only 9 were willing to go - known as the ‘Little Rock Nine’.

Question 29

What happened at Little Rock?

Answer 29

1. The governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, was against desegregation.
2. He sent in 250 state troops to stop the black students from going into the school. The NAACP arranged for the Little Rock Nine to arrive together the next day.
3. When one of the 9 (Elizabeth Eckford) accidentally turned up alone, the state troopers refused to protect her from the angry mob. Over 250 reporters were there and the Little Rock Nine became famous.

Question 30

What did the government do about little rock?

Answer 30

Privately, President Eisenhower thought that enforced integration was a bad idea. However, the bad publicity forced him to do something:

1. He forced Faubus to remove his troops, but there were riots at the
   school.
2. Eisenhower signed a Presidential Order (which did not need approval from Congress) to send over 1000 troops to Little Rock. These troops were under federal (government) control, not Faubus’.
3. This was so controversial that he went on TV to explain himself.

Question 31

What happened next after little rock?

Answer 31

1. The government troops stayed until the end of term to protect the black students.
2. However, black students continued to receive threats.
3. The following school year (1958-9), Faubus closed every school in Little Rock in order to stop integration from
   happening.
4. Because Little Rock was publicised across the world, the government became more concerned about the image of the USA abroad.

Question 32

What was the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955)?

Answer 32

In 1955-56, a series of events led to the desegregation of buses in Montgomery, Alabama.

Question 33

What what happened at the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955)?

Answer 33

1. Rosa Parks is arrested:
   - In December 1955 Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her bus seat for a white man. In response, the Women’s Political Council (WPC) (a
   local group set up to tackle discrimination) organised a one-day boycott of the buses, hoping that it would get the bus companies to listen.

• It was very successful - 90% of black people who usually took the bus
  boycotted them.

2. Martin Luther King is involved:
   - A few days later, the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) was set up. Martin Luther King was chosen as its leader because:
3. He was new in Montgomery, so had no friends or enemies
4. He was a clergyman
5. He was well educated
6. He believed in non-violent action
7. Opposition to the boycott:
   - The bus companies refused to change their policies, so the MIA continued the boycott. They arranged car pools so black people could still get to work.

• The boycotters faced violence (MLK’s house was even bombed) but most of
  them kept going. In February 1956, 89 MIA members were arrested; King
  was found guilty and had to pay a $500 fine.
• The arrests and violence gained the boycotters lots of sympathetic
  publicity.

4. The case goes to court:
   - In 1956 the NAACP began a court case (Browder v. Gayle) to desegregate
   Montgomery’s buses. The court decided that buses should be desegregated and the decision was upheld by the Supreme Court.

• The MIA stopped the boycott in December 1956 and integrated services began.

Question 34

Why was the Montgomery bus boycott
successful?

Answer 34

1. Significant individuals:
   - Martin Luther King was an excellent speaker, organiser and motivator.

• Other people were important too: Jo Ann Robinson (president of the WPC), E. D. Nixon (an experienced NAACP
  campaigner) and Ralph Abernathy (a clergyman who worked with King).

2. Organisation:
   - Existing groups (e.g. WPC) already had good contacts. MIA co-ordinated everything.
3. Publicity:
   - Leaflets, church services and the local press made sure that people knew about the boycott. MIA meetings kept
   everyone informed of what was happening.
4. Commitment:
   - The boycotters kept going despite the threats of violence and arrests.

Question 35

What was the Importance of the boycott

Answer 35

• It showed that civil rights campaigns could be successful if they were well organised and publicised.
• It brought Martin Luther King into the spotlight.
• It highlighted the extreme reactions (violence, bombings etc.) of some white people.
• It showed how non-violent direct action could be effective.
• The boycott had achieved its aims, but threats against black campaigners and churches continued and there was no immediate further segregation (even bus stops were still segregated).

Question 36

What happened after the boycott?

Answer 36

1. In 1957 the Civil Rights Act was passed. It allowed the government
   to prosecute states who interfered with people’s right to vote.
2. The act was a step forward, but there was still opposition:

• Dixiecrats tried their best to stop the act going through. One politician spoke for 24 hours in Congress, so that they ran out of time to vote on the bill (a tactic called a filibuster).
• Even President Eisenhower spoke against it. He felt the act was forcing change on people.

Question 37

What is The Southern Christian
Leadership Council (SCLC)?

Answer 37

1. The SCLC was set up in 1957 to organise church-based protest across the South. Its leaders included Martin Luther King and Ralph Abernathy.
2. Its key features were:

• Protest against segregation
• Non-violent action
• Broad black and white membership

3. The SCLC’s first campaign focused on helping black people register to vote.