Civil Rights Depth Studies Flashcards
1
Q
What percentage of African Americans of voting age were registered in Virginia, Alabama and Mississippi during the Gilded Age?
A
Virginia: 15%
Alabama and Mississippi: 2%
2
Q
What percentage of African Americans were tenant farmers or sharecroppers in the Gilded Age?
A
75%
3
Q
At its peak, how many African Americans were lynched in one year?
A
161
4
Q
What proportion of African Americans lived in the South during the Gilded Age?
A
9 out of 10
5
Q
What percentage of eligible African American children were enrolled in school during the Gilded Age?
A
40%
6
Q
What percentage of African Americans supported Roosevelt in 1936?
A
75%
7
Q
How did the number of African Americans working in federal government change under Roosevelt?
A
Roosevelt tripled the number of African Americans working in federal government.
8
Q
How did the Federal Housing Administration harm AAs?
A
Refused to insure mortgages in African American neighbourhoods.
9
Q
What was black life expectancy in the Gilded Age?
A
33
10
Q
What was a benefit and limitation of the Social Security Act for African Americans?
A
It returned a greater percentage of earnings to low paid workers which disproportionately favoured African Americans. However, it did not extend into many African American jobs such as tenant farmers or sharecroppers.
11
Q
Why was the acreage reduction of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration harmful to African Americans?
A
The acreage reduction aimed to increase prices for farmers. It is estimated that 100,000 African Americans lost their jobs as a result.
12
Q
How many African Americans had joined the CIO by 1939?
A
200,000
13
Q
What is a statistic representing the failure of the civil rights movement to address economic inequality?
A
The unemployment rate of African Americans was twice the national average.
14
Q
Which two athletes raised the Black Power fist at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics?
A
John Carlos and Tommy Smith
15
Q
What did the downturn of the 1880s mean for a particular Native American tribe?
A
Meat subsidies were cut to the Lakota tribe
16
Q
How many women did Franklin Roosevelt appoint to senior government positions?
A
22
17
Q
How many women worked in the Civil Works Administration?
A
275,000
18
Q
How many women worked in the Works Progress Administration?
A
300,000
19
Q
How many women worked in the Civilian Conservation Corps?
A
None
20
Q
How many women were employed in New Deal relief in total?
A
743,000
21
Q
Why did NIRA harm women in some respect?
A
It established lower rates of pay for women.
22
Q
What legislation passed in 1932 harmed married women?
A
Legislation passed in 1932 prevented companies from hiring married women. This was repealed in 1937
23
Q
What was the Knights of Labor membership by 1886?
A
700,000
24
Q
What had happened to KoL membership by the summer of 1887?
A
It had fallen from more by half after the Haymarket Affair, and it continued to plummet.
25
What was the growth rate during the Gilded Age?
About 7%
26
What characterised the periods 1873-77 and 1893-97?
Economic downturns, unemployment rose to around 16%. The lack of a welfare state meant that poverty was fundamental to working class life, especially with growing inequality.
27
How many rail workers were killed in accidents in 1889?
2000 workers
28
How did union membership change from 1933 to 1938?
1933 (3.7 million)
1938 (8 million)
29
What was the minimum wage introduced by the Fair Labour Standards Act (1938)?
25 cents an hour. Child labour was also banned.
30
How were African Americans systematically disenfranchised in the South?
Literacy tests, grandfather clauses, poll taxes. The Supreme Court declared these constitutional in 'Williams vs Mississippi' (1898).
31
What percentage of African Americans of voting age were registered in Mississippi after 1890?
6%
32
What was the outcome of United States vs Cruikshank (1876)?
In United States v. Cruikshank (1876) the Supreme Court overturned the convictions of whites who had murdered hundreds of African Americans who had organized for political and civil rights.
33
At its peak, how many African Americans were lynched in a single year?
161
34
What did Tuskegee University offer students?
Booker T Washington established Tuskegee University in 1881. It offered training in agricultural and manual trades, as well as some academic learning.
35
What was Booker T Washington's Atlanta compromise?
Booker T’s Atlanta Compromise speech can be viewed as a rationale for segregation and disenfranchisement. He implored African Americans to focus on their opportunities rather than their disadvantages, and to focus on personal and educational improvement. He was invited to the white house by Theodore Roosevelt.
36
To whom and when was the first Harvard PhD awarded to an African American?
William E.B du Bois in 1896.
37
Which union accepted African Americans in the Gilded Age?
The Knights of Labor, though the American Federation of Labor did not.
38
What was the attitude of the Famers' Alliance (1870/80s) towards African Americans?
The Farmers’ Alliance was a group that emerged in the 1870s/80s and advocated for improved farming conditions, excluded African Americans. AAs established the Colored Farmers Alliance which tried to negotiate with their white counterparts but they had little success.
39
Did African Americans voting rights improve during the New Deal?
No, they still remained disenfranchised by literacy tests and poll taxes in the South.
40
What was the Harlem Renaissance?
The Harlem Renaissance took place during this period. This saw an explosion of African American, music, art, and expression. Harlem was the destination for many African Americans who moved North as part of the Great Migration away from the Jim Crow South.
41
What percentage of African Americans were living in the South in 1940?
77%
42
What was the psychological impact of Black Power?
It gave the black community a sense of pride in their identity.
43
What did Martin Luther King say about Malcom X?
“I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views, as I understand them.”
44
What was the wider focus of the Black Power movement compared to the Civil Rights Movement?
Protesting segregation, they believed, failed to adequately address the poverty and powerlessness that generations of systemic discrimination and racism had imposed on so many Black Americans. The unemployment rate of African Americans was twice the national average.
45
What suggests that Black Power can be viewed as not in opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, but rather an extension of the desire for equality once segregation had been dismantled?
Martin Luther King became more radical in the few years preceding his death. He expanded his focus to include opposition to poverty and the Vietnam War.
46
What was a controversial practice of the Black Panthers?
The Black Panthers adopted a controversial practice of “patrolling” the police while armed with guns and clad in leather and black berets.
47
What is an example of a controversial incident involving the Black Panthers?
In 1967, founder Huey Newton killed Oakland police officer John Frey. Newton was sentenced to 2-15 years in prison.
48
How did the FBI destroy the Black Panthers?
In 1969, J. Edgar Hoover, the Director of the FBI, described the Black Panther Party as "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country." An FBI raid led to the death of Black Panther leader Fred Hampton. Ultimately by the 1970s, the FBI had dismantled the Black Panther Party. The Black Panther Party officially dissolved in 1982.
49
How many breakfast meals did the Black Panthers hand out in 1970?
1700
50
What was a large emphasis of the Black Panthers Ten Point Programme?
Economic justice
51
What was a small-scale economic impact of the Nation of Islam?
The Nation of Islam preached economic self-sufficiency and established many companies such as the Fashahnn Islamic clothing range.
52
In which year did Native Americans lose the right to negotiate the borders of their reservations?
1871
53
How did the government aim to destroy Native American culture on the reservations?
i) Teaching Christianity on reservations
ii) Parents were forced to send their children to off-reservation boarding schools where they had to renounce their tribal beliefs and speak a different language
iii) An 1883 Dance Order banned traditional Native American dances and celebrations
54
What did a report submitted to Congress find about Native American conditions on the reservations in the Gilded Age?
It found widespread corruption among the federal Native American agencies and generally poor conditions among the relocated tribes.
55
What was a limitation of the Dawes Act?
The land given to Native Americans was often poor quality and difficult to farm. Many Native Americans sold their land to white settlers and could not cope with the money they received, falling into alcoholism and poverty.
56
Which tribe successfully adapted to the Dawes Act?
The Navajo, they successfully adapted to being sheep and goat farmers.
57
How else did the Dawes Act disrupt the way of life for Native Americans?
It went against the Native belief in the 'Great Spirit' and that land could only be shared. It also disrupted the matriarchal nature of some tribes, as land was awarded to men.
58
What was the impact of a downturn in the 1880s on the Lakota?
Meat subsidies were cut to the Lakota tribe.
59
What was a limitation of the improvements seen during the New Deal for Native Americans?
They were only temporary, termination followed shortly afterwards. However, ending allotment was a significant step, as was the prevention of further sale of Native land.
60
When were political rights extended to Native American women?
Indian Reorganisation Act 1934
61
Why did the establishment of tribal courts (New Deal) benefit Native Americans?
It fitted with the Native way of life. Over 100 tribes adopted written constitutions and established governing bodies in the years following the Act, assisting in the strengthening of collective decision-making and self-determination.
62
What were cultural benefits of the IRA?
The IRA protected Native American’s right to practice their religion and assert their own culture. For example, children were allowed to attend local schools and learn about Native American culture.
63
What was the origin of John Collier's sympathetic views towards Native Americans?
John Collier lived for two years on reservations with the Pueblo Indians. He romanticised the Native way of life, viewing it as superior to American capitalism.
64
How many of the 245 Native tribes rejected the IRA?
75 out of 245 tribes rejected the measures. Tribes did not like the idea of a secret ballot which ran counter to their culture.
65
Which Native tribe clashed with John Collier?
John Collier authorised a programme that reduced the number of sheep the Navajo could have on the reservation. They described him as a dictator.
66
How did government improve conditions on reservations during the New Deal?
Federal government provided funding to improve irrigation systems and agricultural productivity on tribal lands.
67
What was the impact of the Siege of Alcatraz on federal policy towards Native Americans?
The Occupation of Alcatraz lasted nineteen months! One month after the end of the Occupation of Alcatraz, Nixon spoke out firmly against termination, declaring that self-determination must be encouraged.
68
What was 'The Trail of Broken Treaties' (1972)?
The Trail of Broken Treaties was a Native American march that had the support of AIM, NARF and six other Native American organisations. They argued for a Twenty Point Position Paper.
69
What was the Occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs?
Led by AIM, the Trail of Broken Treaties precipitated the Occupation of Bureau Indian Affairs. It was endorsed by several organisations, including the Black Panther Party for Self-Defence. The Occupation caused an estimated $700,000 in damage.
70
What was the 'Longest Walk' (1978)?
The Longest Walk (1978) was viewed to be the last action of the Red Power movement. Led by AIM, this 3,200-mile walk's purpose was to educate people about the government's continuing threat to tribal sovereignty. Carter refused to meet with the protesters. It preceded the Native American Religious Freedom Act but was not a cause.
71
What happened on the Pine Ridge reservation in 1975?
The murder of two FBI agents on the Pine Ridge Reservation in 1975.
72
How long did AIM's occupation of Wounded Knee last?
71 days
73
What were similarities between Black Power and Red Power in terms of aims?
Improvement in their civil rights, from a low base.
Pride in their culture and identity.
An end to discrimination, e.g. police brutality.
Economic improvement, more specifically land for NAs.
74
What were similarities between Red Power and Black in terms of methods?
- Use of protest to pressure government to achieve aims
- Potentially willingness to use violence
- Unity
75
How were AIM and BPP similar in their methods?
Patrolling the streets to protect against police brutality.
76
When was the Women's Christian Temperance Union established?
1874
77
What is evidence of Gilded Age industrialisation offering opportunity for women outside of domestic work?
Between 1870-1900, the number of domestic women servants fell by half, clerical occupations increased ten-fold and factory work rose from 18% to 22%.
78
What is evidence of women unionising to protect their rights?
Knights of Labour offered support to women workers. Women gained experience in standing up for their rights, e.g. Mary Harris Jones.
79
What is an argument that industrialisation worsened the position of women in the Gilded Age?
Industrialisation, especially allied with the influx of cheap immigrant labour, accentuated inequality and led to harsh conditions and sexual exploitation.
80
What was a women's organisation was established in 1896?
The National Association of Colored Women was established in 1896 and aided with many women’s clubs’ projects. Its motto was ‘lifting as we climb’.
81
What was a limitation of the impact of industrialisation on women?
In industry, women were still concentrated in textiles and cotton mills. They were usually confined to unskilled labour and had few opportunities for advancement. Male earnings still far outstripped women's.
82
What is an example of women involving themselves in charitable work in urban areas during the Gilded Age?
Women established settlement houses to provide support to urban poor. For example, Henry Street Settlement House, (est. by Lilian Wald in 1893) became a bastion of civic reform. It offered safe playgrounds for children, campaigned to eradicate tuberculosis, and sponsored scholarships for needy boys and girls.
83
What was a limitation of the significant increase in college educated women seen in the Gilded Age?
It was very difficult to maintain a relationship and become highly educated. Seventy-five percent of all women who earned doctoral degrees between 1877 and 1924 remained single.
84
What was the impact of the growth of sweatshops on women?
One growth sector of the economy was sweatshops. Low wages and very oppressive working conditions were common. Workers rights were extremely limited. Many women and girls preferred the dangers of prostitution to the poor wages and conditions in factories and sweatshops. Most women who worked did so out of necessity.
85
What was the employment position of African American women in the Gilded Age?
Many AA women worked due to their husband’s low income and were domestic servants, the job was lonely and tedious, for poor pay. Other AA women worked in the fields of the South picking cotton. Almost no AA women worked in white collar professions.
86
Which union was unsympathetic to female workers in the Gilded Age?
The American Federation of Labour, was much less sympathetic to women as it represented skilled workers. By 1900, only two percent of all trade unionists were women.
87
What is a perspective on women's role in the New Deal administration?
It could be argued that positions of power were held by so called ‘social justice’ feminists who were anxious to use their power to achieved key aims such as child labour legislation.
88
Which women held high-profile positions in the New Deal?
- Frances Perkins became the U.S. Secretary of State for Labor
- Josephine Roche was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Treasury
- Hallie Flanagan led the Federal Theatre Project
- Nellie Ross took charge of the U.S. Mint.
89
What was the impact of the economic downturn of the New Deal on women in work?
Falling wages hit many women, especially domestic workers who were largely unprotected by labour legislation and included many non-white and immigrant workers.
90
Who was the emphasis of the New Deal placed upon?
The public works projects paid for by federal money were largely to provide jobs for men, who dominated the workforce in large-scale construction projects. Regulation of wages often confirmed the wage gap between men and women.
91
What did the Farm Security Act (1937) do?
The Farm Security Act of 1937 improved the conditions of many poor Southern farmers but did little about the traditional unfairness of rural life for women.
92
What was the role of women in the Black Panthers?
In the 1970s, women made up 70% of the Black Panthers and their activities at a local level helped to define the movement. Black Panther sisters wrote articles, designed posters, gave legal advice, were organisers and speakers, often making links to local communities. High ranking members of the Panthers were Ericka Higgins and Elaine Brown. Women played a key role in the Breakfast Club programme for poor black children.
93
What was the role of black women in the Civil Rights Movement?
Women played an important role in the civil rights movement of the 1950s. They took a leading role in the Birmingham Bus Boycott, the Freedom Rides and the famous March on Washington, although none were invited to speak.
94
What was a common attitude among Black Power leaders towards feminism?
There was a tendency to see feminism as a white women’s thing and black activists called for black women to ‘walk behind the men’ in protesting and political activity.
95
What are two contrasting views about the impact of Black Power on women's rights?
i) Women played a key role in shaping Black Power, they were treated as revolutionary equals
ii) Sexism was inherent in the macho posturing of Black Power
96
What are examples of influential women who promoted Black Power?
i) Fannie Lou Hamer spoke publicly about the racism among Southern women, described by Malcom X as the country’s number one freedom fighter.
ii) Ericka Higgins was a prominent leader in the Black Panther Party.
iii) Elaine Brown was Chairwomen of Black Panther Party in 1974, appointed a number of women to the cultural committee who worked on community programmes such as the establishment of Oakland community school.
97
What was the view of the Nation of Islam on Birth Control?
In 1965, the Nation of Islam condemned the ‘sin of birth control’.
98
What did Eldridge Cleaver describe the rape of white women as?
A revolutionary act.
99
What did Stokely Carmichael describe the place of women in the SNCC to be?
" The only position for women in SNCC is prone."
Clearly demonstrated engrained sexist attitude.
100
What demonstrates the unprecedented inclusivity of the Knights of Labor?
They would accept anyone regardless of race, sex or skill, though they made an exception for Asian immigrants, calling for the expulsion of Chinese immigrants. They inclusivity of the Knights of Labor was unprecedented. They offered moral direction, but also practical proposals. The Knights of Labor saw growth from 20,000 in 1881 to 700,000 in 1886.
101
In which industries were there large monopolies during the Gilded Age?
Oil and steel
102
What percentage of wealth was owned by 2% of the workforce during the Gilded Age?
30%
103
What was the impact of economic downturns during the Gilded Age on workers?
Growth was not linear, there were depressions 1873-77 and 1893-97, in these cases, unemployment rose to over 16%, underemployed increased and wages fell. Lack of a welfare state made this particularly difficult for workers. Poverty was fundamental to the lives of the working class, widening inequality, most benefits went to skilled workers.
104
What were the divisions between white workers, African Americans, immigrants in the Gilded Age?
The workforce was divided between white, skilled workers, who made up most of the unions, and African Americans. This division was exacerbated by the arrival of new immigrants from Europe and Asia. There were fears that these new arrivals would increase the available workforce and result in a reduction in wages. Unions would not allow African Americans or new immigrants to join.
105
Why was the replacement of the Knights of Labor with the American Federation of Labor a regression for union unity?
The American Federation of Labor largely replaced the Knights of Labor. They offered a competing vision. AFL was founded on the superiority of craft unionism. They rejected the social goals of the Knights of Labour. Women, immigrants, and AAs were largely ignored. AFL focused on white, skilled workers.
106
What was the significance of the Social Security Act (1935) for workers?
The Social Security Act of 1935, established a pension system for workers, unemployment and disability benefits, as well as benefits for victims of industrial accidents. This was significant as it provided a safety net for workers (for the first time).
107
What was the significance of the establishment of the CIO in 1935?
The Committee of Industrial Organisations was established in 1935, becoming the Congress of Industrial Organisations (CIO) in 1937. This not only encouraged whole-industry based unions, but also encouraged African Americans and other ethnic groups to join, thus bringing some unity to the labour movement.
108
What was the specific impact of Francis Perkins on New Deal legislation?
She is partially responsible for a senior pension through Social Security, the establishment of minimum wage, child labour laws, and the creation of the workweek.
109
What was the impact of DRUM?
- The Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement (DRUM) was an organization of African-American workers formed in May 1968 in the Chrysler assembly plant in Detroit.
- On July 8, 1968 DRUM led a wildcat strike against conditions in the Hamtramck plant. Some 4,000 workers observed the strike, lasted 2.5 days and prevented the production of 3,000 cars.
- The new organization drew notice for its militancy and willingness to challenge the UAW hierarchy.
- Different organisations at various plant were brought together in the League of Revolutionary Black Workers which formed in June 1969.
110
What was the impact of the Wagner Act on the legal strength of unions?
a) It established the National Labor Relations Board which could negotiate on behalf of workers and prevent companies from using their own unions.
b) The right to collective bargaining and joining a union was enshrined.
c) Using spies against unions was banned.
d) General Motors and US steel were forced to accept unions.
e) Importantly, the Wagner Act was declared constitutional.
111
Compare the number of women working in 1870 and 1910.
1870 (14%)
1910 (20%)
