Civil Rights Flashcards
1
Q
When was Eisenhower in power
A
1953-61
2
Q
When was the bus boycott
A
1st December 1955- 20th December 1956
3
Q
What was the Montgomery NAACP
A
Set up in Montgomery in 1946 and focused on bus reform throughout the early 1950s
4
Q
What was the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)
A
Set up on 5.12.55 to support the bus boycott and demand political changes for black people
5
Q
Define black nationalism
A
The belief that black people will never be truly equal in intrigated communities
6
Q
Define militant
A
Somebody who favours violent methods for a political or social cause
7
Q
Define Black Power
A
Movement emphasising racial pride and creation of black political and cultural institutions to control their own communities and promote black culture, values,pride history etc
8
Q
Who were the founders of the Black Panthers
A
Huey Newton and Bobby Seale
9
Q
What treatment did black Americans face
A
Across the USA, black Americans faced negative treatment such as racial segregation and discrimination. Jim Crow Laws enforced segregation in public parks, cinemas, restaurants, schools, universities and on public transport
10
Q
What were the attitudes like in the ‘Deep South’
A
The Deep South is those states in the USA’s south-east with a history of slavery and who formed the Confederacy during the US Civil War. Many people in these states held very traditional and conservatives views. These states are Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas,Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee,Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina Virginia and Florida
11
Q
Why do many laws vary between states
A
The US has a federal system of government. This means while the constitution gives federal government (President, House of Congress and the Supreme Court) some powers, it also gives states the right to pass many of their own laws
12
Q
What was the Klu Klux Klan
A
A group who persecuted Jews, Catholics, communists, and anyone who wasn’t white, especially African Americans. They put burning crosses in front of houses, blew up homes and murdered people. Many policemen and judges in the South were members or sympathetic to the organisation
13
Q
How many black Americans could vote in the South
A
Before the war, around 3% could vote, while in 1956 about 20% were registered to vote
14
Q
Why were so few black Americans registered to vote
A
White people could stop black from voting using a variety of official had unofficial methods:
- Employers threatening to sack black employees
- White gangs gathered outside registration and voting places
- Black campaigns and the lawyers and activists who went to court to defend the right to vote frequency faced beating or murder
- Unfair voting registration tests, including literacy tests, that would be biased towards white people
15
Q
What factors contributed to the growth of the civil rights movement in the 1950s
A
Factors included:
- Better education for black people, especially in the North, led to more black professionals
- Migration meant that many poor black people moved north and liberal whites moved south
- Southern towns grew, giving black people new job opportunities in industry
- The Cold War made the US government sensitive to international criticism
- In the Second War many white people worked with black people and black Americans saw integration abroad
- Television brought events into the living room- racism could not ignored across the USA
16
Q
What nationwide civil rights organisation were there in the 1950s
A
- National Association for the Advancement of Coloured people (NAACP)
- Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
17
Q
What groups campaigned for rights in the South
A
Local groups were often church-based. These often had more success in the South. Some local groups did not oppose segregation but wanted equal standards. These groups were important in helping develop tectic of on-violent direct action
18
Q
How did the NAACP campaign for civil rights
A
Focussed on campaigning through the courts
19
Q
What was Plessy v. Ferguson
A
CORE campaigns use non-violent direct action protests such a boycotts, picket and sit-ins of segregation places
20
Q
How did church organisations campaign for civil rights
A
Black American churches were important centres of most black communities in the South. Black clergymen were often community leaders and organisers,and were involved in the civil rights movement because:
- Most were paid by the church so would not lose their jobs if they spoke out against white racism
- They were educated and good public speakers
- They were good negotiators
- They had their own network of contacts in the black community
- They could persuade and gain support
- They sometimes used non-violent direct action, bu stressed forgiving opponents
21
Q
What opposition did the civil rights movement face in the South
A
They faced violent opposition from the KKK as well as from white Southern churches who use the bible to justify segregation
22
Q
When and where was Emmett Till murdered
A
The 14 year old from Chicago was murdered in August 1955 in Mississippi
23
Q
What happened to Till’s killers
A
The trial was reported across the country. The jury cleared the defendants after an hour. The defendants later sold their story (admitting the murder) to a magazine for $3,500
24
Q
What was the impact of Till’s murder
A
Till’s mother, Mamie Bradley, insisted on an open casket with an open viewing of her son’s battered body in the funeral home. This led to huge publicity
25
Who were the Dixiecrats
The Democrats were the dominant political party of the South. Many politicians opposed integration. The most significant opponents were nicknamed 'Dixiecrats' after Southern Democrats who had formed their own breakaway party
26
What was the Brown v. Topeka case 1954
The NAACP took the case of Linda Brown to the Supreme Court as she could not go to the white school near her house. The Supreme Court ruled that the Plessy ruling should no longer apply so that ' separate but equal' could no longer be used to justify segregated education
27
What was the impact of Brown
- The Brown case reversed Plessy, sparking off many more desegregation campaigns
- The Supreme Court set no timetable for desegregation, but in 1955 another Supreme Court case ruled that desegregation should be carried out by states 'with all deliberate speed'. A vague statement that gave Southern states flexibility
- In the Deep South progress was slower. Governors of some states, such as Kansas and Mississippi did not accept desegregation
- A white backlash began as can be seen from the Southern Manifesto, a declaration signed by 11 Southern States that claimed desegregation was against the US constitution
28
What happened at Little Rock in 1957
Little Rock, Arkansas, was desegregating Central High School in 1957. Due to threats and discrimination only nine students were willing to go at the start of the school year. Governor Orval Faubus sent 250 state troopers to 'keep the peace' by stopping the black students from entering the first day of school. On the second day, Elizabeth Eckford, one of the Little Rock Nine students, was shouted at by a mob of white people as white people as she walked into school
29
What was the significance of Little Rock
Photographer of Eckford and the white mob were in the newspaper worldwide with the Little Rock Nine becoming famous. The federal government became embarrassed by the publicity. As a result:
- President Eisenhower, who did not initially agree with legally enforcing integration, sent in 1000 federal troops to force Kansas to obey the law
- Governor Fausbus' state troops were put under federal control using a presidential order
- Eisenhower explained his actions on TV saying how states had to respect the law
- At the end of the school year, Governor Faubus closed every Little Rock school for the next school year in order to avoid integration
- Parents forced schools to re-open as integrated in September 1959
30
What were the WCC
The White Citizens Council (WCC), set up after the Brown ruling, grew rapidly in the late 1950s. They were campaigned against desegregation and, like the KKK, carried out threats and violent actions against black families and civil rights activists
31
How did civil rights organisations cope with opposition to desegregation in schools
The NAACP and CORE sen representatives to work with families if children involved in school desegregation. CORE produced a leaflet advising how students should behave during integration and warning them about the hostility they would face
32
Who was secretary of the Montgomery NAACP and leader of its Youth Council
Rosa Parks
33
Why did she become the figurehead of the bus boycott of 1955-56
Parks was a respectable, middle-aged, married women who was well regarded in the black community. There was nothing disreputable about her that opponents could use to make her opponents look bad
34
What action was taken due to Parks' arrest
The WPC (Women's Political Council) called for a one-day bus boycott on 5th December. 90% of black passengers boycotted the bus company
35
Who was Montgomery's mayor
Mayor Gayle
36
What were the aims of the MIA
The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) was set up on 5th December 1955. It aimed to support the bus boycott and campaign for improvements demanded by the WPC
37
Who was chosen as leader of the MIA
Martin Luther King
38
When did the Montgomery Bus Boycott take place
5th December 1955 to 20th December 1956
39
How did the authorities respond
Many white people in Montgomery opposed the boycott. WCC membership rose sharply and even Mayor Gayle joined. White officials harassed MIA officials and arrested them on minor charged such as speeding. On 22nd February 89 MIA members, including King, were arrested for disrupting lawful business. Their trial increased publicity although King was found guilty and made to pay a $500 fine.
40
What system was introduced to help the boycott
The MIA met with church groups and other organisations to set up car pools, which began on 12th December
41
Why was the boycott successful
Overall it was combination of organisation, commitment, publicity and the leadership of King and E.D Nixon (NAACP member helped organise the boycott and went on fundraising tours)
42
Why was the boycott important
For several reasons:
- Showed black people could organise mass resistance
- Attracted widespread support and publicity
- Made King a well known figure
- Showed how non-violent direct action could work
43
What happened after the boycott
While buses were desegregated the day after the boycott ended on 21st December 1956, there was still a white backlash. Several black churches were firebombed as were the homes of MIA leaders including King. Bus services had to be suspended for several weeks as shots were fired at black people. Bus stops and other facilities remained segregated for years after
44
How did the federal government respond to the boycott
President Eisenhower introduced the 1957 Civil Rights Act
45
What was the SCLC
The Southern Christian Leadership (SCLC) was set up in January 1957 with King as a leader. It wanted an end to all segregation and campaigns to increase black voters registration by using non-violent direct action, publicity and nationwide protests
46
What does 'filibuster' mean
A tactic used by politicians to stop a bill being voted on by talking for so long that the time limit of the debate expires. This was used by Storm Thurmond, s Dixiecrat, to stop the first vote on the 1957 Civil Rights Act
47
How effective was the 1957 Civil Rights Act
It was a struggle to pass as Dixiecrats opposed the bill. When it eventually passed on 9th September 1957, it allowed the federal government to prosecute states that didn't respect black voting rights. However, the trials had to take place in the states themselves and all-white juries were unlikely to do anything
48
What happened in Greensboro, north Carolina in 1960
On 1st February 1960, four black college students sat as a segregated lunch counter at Woolworth's department store and waited to be served despite being to to leave
49
Who organised the Greensboro sit-in
By 4th February there were over 300 students working in shifts- black and white, male and female. Both CORE and the SCLC were asked to send people to train the students in non-violent protests tactics. Ella Baker from SCLC held a meeting of students on 15th April in Raleigh, North Carolina to plan protests across the South
50
What organisation led sit-ins
Students Nonviolent Coordination Committee (SNCC)
51
Why was Greensboro significant
The Greensboro sit-in was significant because:
- It helped sit-ins to spread across the country
- Some white southerners joined CORE and SNCC
- Attracted around 50 000 protesters by April 1960
- Sit-ins were easy for the media to cover
52
What Supreme Court judgement desegregated state transport
Browder v. Gayle (1956)
53
What were the 'Freedom Riders' of 1961
CORE activists decided to ride buses from the North to the Deep South to test if desegregation was happening
54
What happened on the first Freedom Ride
On 4th May 1961, seven black and six white ';Freedom Riders' left Washington DC. The Governor of Georgia urged calm but the governor of Alabama spoke out against the riders. KKK and WCC members aimed to stop them
55
What was the reaction by white opponents
| Freedom Riders
- On 15th May 1961, over 100 KKK members surrounded the first bus in Anniston, Alabama, slashing the tires and smashing windows. Someone threw a firebomb through a broken window and held the doors shut. Passengers escaped just before the petrol tank exploded, although some were beaten up.
- On 17th May the SNCC set up their own Freedom Riders from Nashville, Tennessee. No driver would take them further than Birmingham, Alabama. At the bus station they encountered an angry mob outside. Governor John Patterson was forced to get them safely to Montgomery by the federal government
- A policeman fired a gun in the air to stop the mob from attacking the Riders at the Montgomery bus station. The mob (over 1 000) then roamed Montgomery, attacking black people and setting one boy on fire
56
What was the impact of the Freedom Rides
- More people volunteered. Over the summer there were over 60 Freedom Rides.
- over 300 Riders went to Jackson, Mississippi's segregated jail
- on 1st November 1961 the federal government pledged to enforced desegregation if states didn't obey
- Southern states began to desegregate bus facilities
57
What was the name of the black student who tried to enrol at the university of Mississippi in 1962
James Meredith
58
How had Southern universities respond to desegregation
1962- The Supreme Court had ordered the University of Mississippi to admit Meredith but university officials and Ross Barnett (stat governor and WCC member) physically stopped him from registering
59
How did the federal government respond to the Meredith case
Meredith returned to register on 30th September 1962 accompanied by 500 federal officials, President Kennedy called fro calm on television. Despite this, a mob of over 3 000 (many armed with little opposition from state police) attacked the federal officials and chanted in favour of Governor Ross Barnet. Many federal marshals were badly injured with 28 shot and hundreds of civilians hurt. Kennedy sent in federal troops who stopped the rioting
60
When did James Meredith register
On 1st October - federal troops guarded him for the whole year
61
Who was the chief of police in Birmingham, Alabama
'Bull' Connor -tough chief of police who instructed police not to prevent the KKK from attacking the Freedom Riders
62
What nickname was given to Birmingham
'Bombingham' due to the regular bombing of black churches, homes and businesses there
63
How did police respond to civil rights protests in Birmingham, Alabama in 1963
Civil rights groups (including SNCC and SCLC) began Campaign 'C' (for 'confrontation') to end segregation. This included sit-ins, mass meetings, peaceful marches and boycott of shops
- On 2nd May, about 6 000 (mostly students) marched. Over 900 were arrested
- The next day on 3rd May, more young people marched. The jails were full so 'Bull' Connor ordered the police to use dogs and fire hoses on protesters
64
What occurred after the campaign in Birmingham
- Desegregation agreed for Birmingham
- Black homes and businesses bombed
- First significant riots against white violence
- Kennedy ordered federal troops into Alabama
- Over 1 000 black students expelled for missing school
65
What were the longer term effects of the Birmingham campaign
- Federal government fear of widespread race riots
- Protests in other cities across USA
- A month later, 143 cities had some desegregation
- Many black people felt progress was too slow
- Some black Americans thought it was wrong to put children and students in danger through protests
- Many more Americans saw civil rights as most important issue- media had helped raise publicity
- The government produced a tougher civil rights bill which became the Civil Rights Act 1964
66
What was the March on Washington 1963
Civil rights leaders led a protest march of people from across the USA: the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
67
How many people took part in the March on Washington
Over 250 000, about 1/4 of them white, too part. At the time it was the largest political gathering in Us history.
68
Why was the March on Washington significant
This was because:
- Showed that civil rights was a huge national issue
- It was broadcast live on television in the USA and in other countries
- King's speech at the Lincoln Memorial meant many more saw King as the leader of the movement
- Black and white people protested together peacefully
- Showed support from all classes, including famous people such as Bob Dylan
- Led to Kennedy proposing the Civil Rights Act 1964
69
What did the Freedom Summer' in 1964 aim to do
This was a campaign by SNCC and CORE to increase black voter registration in Mississippi in the run up to the 1964 presidential election
70
What progress in black voter registration has been made in the early 1960s
Between 1962 and 1964, about 700 000 black Americans in the South registered. However, in he countryside and Deep South the number hardy rose at all
71
What did the 'Freedom Summer' involve
Most volunteers were white college students from middle class families who could afford to work with local campaigners on projects in the black community. Some helped teach locals how to pass voter registration tests
72
Was there white opposition
Yes, and it was often extremely violent. Many white people from Mississippi did nit like what they saw as an 'invasion' of liberal white students from other states. There were 10 000 KKK members in Mississippi who burned 37 black churches and 30 homes during the Freedom Summer
73
How successful was the Freedom Summer
Not very. Of the 17 000 black people in Mississippi who tried to register to vote, only 1 600 succeeded
74
What were the Mississippi murders
1964, three civil rights campaigners- Michael Schwerner (white CORE worker), Andrew Goodman (black CORE worker) and James Chaney (white volunteer)- were arrested while driving home. Later that evening they were released. However, on their way home they were shot by the KKK. Their bodies were found on the 4th August
75
Where was Selma
Alabama
76
Why was black voter registration so important in Selma
1. Selma was in Dallas County where more black people were legally entitled to vote than white people, yet only 1 % of them were registered
2. Selma had the largest WCC in Alabama
77
What happened in Selma on 7th March, 1965
Organised by king, 600 protesters set out to march from Selma to Montgomery. State troopers stopped them just outside Selma, firing tear gas and attacking protesters with clubs and electric cattle prods. This became known as Bloody Sunday. All over the country, people marched in support
78
What were the consequences of Selma
- President Johnson used an executive order to take over the state national guard that subsequently protected the marches from Selma to Montgomery on 21-24th March
- The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed
79
What did the Civil Rights Act 1964 do
Changed the law at a federal level (covering all states) to:
- Ban discrimination in voter registration tests (was not effective as Selma shows)
- Banned discrimination in public places and bushiness with branches in more than one state
- Federal government given power to enforce school desegregation
- Federal government could stop giving money to states that discrimination
- Overall it allowed the federal government to enforce desegregation in the south in all public places/ amenities
80
How did the Voting Rights Act 1965 help
Allowed the government to enforce voting rights.
By the end of 1965, federal registrars had enrolled nearly 80 000 showing some progress.
However, change remained allow due to white anger
81
What were the roles of presidents Kennedy and Johnson in the advancement of Civil Rights
John F. Kennedy (Democratic: 1961-63)
-Appointed black people to high-level jobs such ad Thurgood Marshall to the courts and Robert Weaver in the White House
-Pressed for Civil Rights Act- but assassinated before passed
-Good relationship with MLK
-Personal pressure- argued for protected for the Freedom Riders
Lyndon B. Johnson (Democratic; 1963-69)
-Appointed black people to high-level jobs- Thurgood Marshall promoted to Supreme Court
-New laws- CRA (1964) and VRA (1965)
-Used executive orders- took over state national guard in Alabama to protect Selma marchers
-Personal pressure- pressed Southern Politicians to support civil rights bill
82
How much changed between 1954 and 1965
Civil Rights Act had ended segregation
Voting Act had increased voting rights
BUT Many black American continued to face discrimination in housing, work,education, healthcare and treatment by police
83
What religious organisation was Malcolm X a member of after leaving prison
The Nation of Islam
84
What did black nationalists believe
They believed integration was ineffective in achieving racial equality so that African American should aim to create a separate black nation
85
What did Malcolm X criticise about the civil rights movement
Before 1964, when Malcolm X was still within the Nation of Islam, he criticised non-violent direct action, he believed even the most well-meaning whites could not help black people achieve equality. Wanted separatism, not working with whites and use of violence in self defence
86
How did Malcolm X's views change
In 1964, after leaving the NOI, Malcolm went on a pilgrimage to Mecca and returned with changed views. He was more willing to work with other civil rights organisations
87
When was Malcolm X assassinated
1965. By the NOI members
88
What was 'Black Power'
A movement that encouraged black people to be proud of their heritage and culture was suspicious of help from whites and argued against forced integration. They used militant language and often referred to revolution
89
Where did the Black Power movement get most of its support
From those living in poor areas (often called ghettos) where civil rights seemed to have very little effect on living standards
90
Who was Stokely Carmichael
Chairman of the SNCC. Later joined the Black Panthers
91
What happened during the March Against fear
James Meredith led the march in June 1966 but was shot. When he was in hospital, Martin Luther King and Stokely Charmicheal led the march. Carmichael's speeches were militant and inspired people to go along with his more radical beliefs
92
What were the consequences of the black power movement for civil rights organisations
Both CORE and SNCC became less welcoming to white supporters. However, they lost significant numbers of black supporters who disagreed with more radical policies
93
Who gave black power salutes at the 1968 Mexico Olympics
Tommie Smith and John Carlos
94
Who were the Black Panthers
The Black Panther Party (BPP) was one of the largest Black Power groups. They were more willing than most Black Power groups to work with white people towards their aim. These aims included providing social and economic support to poor black people and defending communities against racism in the police
95
How were the BPP set up
They were set up in Carolina in October 1966 by Huey P Newton and Bobby Seale
96
What did the BPP do
- Most Black Panthers saw themselves as the police and social workers of their black communities. They:
- Patrolled streets (often armed)
- Worked to stop black city gangs from attacking each other
- Controlled traffic around schools to protect children
- Put pressure on local white government officials to improve facilities
- Ran courses on black history and citizens' rights
- Carried tape recorders to record police harassment
- Organised free medial clinics and free clothing for the poor
- Ran the Breakfast Club Program (BCP) to provide breakfast to poor black children
97
What did the BPP achieve
While the Black Panthers helped some local communities improve living standards they were also frequently involved in crime to pay for their schemes. Some of this money was stolen from banks and black businesses. The BPP was often accused of provoking the police rather than defending the community
98
How many riots were there between 1964 and 1968
329 major riots in 257 US cities
99
Name some important riots
- In the Watts district of Los Angeles in August 1965
- There were summer riots every year in different cities, mainly in the North (worst in Chicago in 1966 and Detroit in 1967)
100
Why were there riots
- Police discrimination (in the 30 months before the Watts riots, police shot 65 black people - 27 in the black and 25 were unarmed)
- Discrimination by white officials-took form of not responding to complaints in mostly black neighbourhoods
- Black twice as likely to be unemployed- mostly unskilled , low-paid jobs
- More than twice as likely to be poor-mostly white landlords crowded people into badly repaired housing
- Poor quality education and life chances
101
What was the impact of the riots
- Martin Luther King visited Watts in LA during the riots and said that the SCLC must campaign more in the North
- President Johnson was convinced of the need to put more money into improving the ghettos
- Led to rise in membership of Black Power groups
102
What was President Johnson's reaction to the riots
Johnson saw the riots as a consequence of political and economic failures In July 1967 he set up an enquiry (= an official investigation) into the riots.
This led to the 1968 Kerner Report that said:
-Ghetto conditions were an important cause
-Failure of white officials to fix problems that the black community had pointed out
-The police should try to provide more protection in ghettos and needed to change their often unfair treatment of black people
-Police had made the riots worse by using too much violence
-More federal money needed for poor areas
-The media had exaggerated the riots
103
Was King's Chicago campaign 1966 successful
There were some successes but the Chicago campaign cannot be considered as a success on the same level as Montgomery or selma. These were for a number of reasons:
- Many of Chicago's black politicians didn't support the campaign
- The SCLC found it hard to connect to the ghetto gangs
- King's message of peaceful non-violent didn't work as well as it had with southern church groups
- Chicago's Mayor, Richard Daley, used words not weapons. In negotiations with King he sounded reasonable but then did nothing.
- Publicity and public sympathy was much less supportive as planned peaceful marches in July coincided with the outbreak of violent riot
104
How did the Chicago campaign end
Despite riots, Mayor Daley agreed to a meeting with the Chicago Freedom Movement, which led to an agreement on fairer housing. King and many of the SCLC then left Chicago. Once the SCLC had left, Mayor Daley mostly ignored the agreement
105
When was Martin Luther King assassinated
King was shot in 4th April 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee
106
What was the short-term impact of King's death
In the weeks after:
- Riots in 172 towns and cities across the USA
- Between the 4th and 9th April (King's funeral), 32 black people were dead, 3 500 injured and 27 000 arrested
- The 1968 Civil Rights Act (Fair Housing Act) was quickly passed, which included more protections on housing and federal protection of civil rights workers as well as harsher punishments for rioting
107
What was the longer-term impact of King's death
In the years after:
- National civil rights groups lost membership, funding and support from white people
- Many black Americans became more radical- in 1969 the SNCC changed the 'N' in its from 'non-violent' to 'national'
108
What did civil rights campaigns focus on between 1969-75
Protests split many ways. The BPP campaigned on social and economic issues, but the Vietnam War increasing dominated public debate. Black Americans were particularly angry that their demands for civil rights were not being met, and yet they were not being met, and yet they were expected to fight
109
What did President Richards Nixon for Civil rights
Nixon (Republican: 1969-74) was elected largely on his pledge to begin withdrawing troops from Vietnam while also winning the conflict. He carefully spoke in favour of civil rights, arguing that his reforms would prevent riots. His actions included
- Tax cuts for white-owned businesses that set up branches in black neighbourhood
- Pressed for 'affirmative action'-deliberately choosing a black person for a job over a white person in order to increase representation
- Made sure there were more black officials in the White house - James Farmer was given a high-level job in the Department of Health, Welfare and Education
- Bussing school children from ghettos schools to white schools
110
Had three been progress by 1975
PROGRESS: The fight for civil rights expanded somewhat to include other minority ethnic groups.
LACK OF PROGRESS: Despite this, economic inequality didn't get better through the 1970s and desegregation didn't always bring about improvements in black people's living standards. 58% of school children in the south still went to desegregated schools by 1968
