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ANS 328 I: Principles of Nutrition > Citric Acid Cycle and Feedstuffs > Flashcards

Citric Acid Cycle and Feedstuffs Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 ways pyruvate is used after glycolysis?

A
  1. Fatty acid synthesis.
  2. Lactate formation (Anaerobic conditions only).
  3. Citric acid/Kreb’s cycle (Most common).
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2
Q

Where does the citric acid cycle happen?

A

In the mitochondria, due to requiring aerobic conditions.

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3
Q

How is ATP created in the citric acid cycle?

A

The complete oxidation of acetyl-CoA, oxidation of NAD+ into NADH + H^+, and the oxidation of FAD+ into FADH_2.

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4
Q

What enzyme is required to convert pyruvate into acetyl-CoA?

A

Pyruvate dehydrogenase.

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5
Q

What co-factors are required to convert pyruvate into acetyl-CoA?

A

The oxidation of NAD+ into NADH +H^+. CoA goes in and CO2 comes out.

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6
Q

What enzyme is required to convert acetyl-CoA (in combination with oxaloacetate) into citrate?

A

Citrate synthase.

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7
Q

What co-factors are required to convert acetyl-CoA (in combination with oxaloacetate) into citrate?

A

H2O goes in. CoA comes out, now having been separated from acetyl.

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8
Q

What enzyme is required to convert citrate into isocitrate?

A

Aconitase.

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9
Q

What enzyme is required to convert isocitrate into alpha-ketoglutarate?

A

Isocitrate dehydrogenase.

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10
Q

What co-factors are required to convert isocitrate into alpha-ketoglutarate?

A

The oxidation of NAD+ to create NADH + H^+. The release of a CO2.

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11
Q

What enzyme is required to convert alpha-ketoglutarate into succinyl-CoA?

A

Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.

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12
Q

What co-factors are required to convert alpha-ketoglutarate into succinyl-CoA?

A

The oxidation of NAD+ into NADH + H^+. CoA goes in and CO2 goes out.

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13
Q

What is important about the formation of succinyl-CoA?

A

At this point in the citric acid cycle, pyruvate is completely oxidized.

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14
Q

What enzyme is required to convert succinyl-CoA into succinate?

A

Succinyl-CoA synthetase.

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15
Q

What co-factors are required to convert succinyl-CoA into succinate?

A

ADP + Pi goes in. ATP and
CoA goes out.

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16
Q

What enzyme is required to convert succinate into fumarate?

A

Succinate dehydrogenase.

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17
Q

What co-factors are required to convert succinate into fumarate?

A

The oxidation of FAD+ into FADH_2.

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18
Q

What enzyme is required to convert fumarate into malate?

A

Fumarase.

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19
Q

What co-factor is required to convert fumarate into malate?

A

H2O goes in.

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20
Q

What enzyme is used to convert malate into oxaloacetate?

A

Malate dehydrogenase.

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21
Q

What co-factor is required to convert malate into oxaloacetate?

A

The oxidation of NAD+ into NADH + H^+.

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22
Q

How many ATP are produced from NADH+H^+?

A

25 from 10 H^+.

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23
Q

What is the ATP equivalency of NADH + H^+?

A

2.5 ATP.

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24
Q

How many ATP are produced from FADH_2?

A

9 from 6 H^+.

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25
Q

What is the ATP equivalency of FADH_2?

A

1.5 ATP.

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26
Q

At what 2 steps is the citric acid cycle regulated?

A
  1. Pyruvate dehydrogenase.
  2. Isocitrate dehydrogenase.
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27
Q

What is pyruvate dehydrogenase activated by?

A

Insulin, preventing gluconeogenesis.

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28
Q

What is isocitrate dehydrogenase regulated by?

A

Inhibited by an increase in the NADH + H^+: NAD+ ratio in the cell. Stops the reaction to prevent running out of NAD+.

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29
Q

What is citrate a substrate for?

A

Fatty acid synthesis.

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30
Q

What are the 2 mitochondrial membranes?

A
  1. Outer.
  2. Inner.
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31
Q

What is the function of the outer membrane?

A

Encompass the whole mitochondrion and forms the outer surface of the mitochondrion.

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32
Q

What is the function of the inner membrane?

A

Has transporters for different compounds. Controls what enters and leaves the mitochondrion.

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33
Q

What is the nutrient composition of a concentrate?

A
  1. Low in fiber.
  2. High in energy or protein.
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34
Q

What are energy concentrates?

A

Concentrates that are high in energy.

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35
Q

What are protein concentrates?

A

Concentrates that are high in protein.

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36
Q

What is the nutrient composition of a roughage?

A
  1. High fiber.
  2. Low nutrient density.
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37
Q

What are feed additives?

A

Any substance, other than concentrates and roughages, intentionally added to a diet/ration. ex: Vitamin, mineral, amino acid, drug, enzyme.

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38
Q

What family are cereal grains from?

A

The grass family.

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39
Q

What are cereal grains the primary energy source for?

A
  1. Non-ruminant animals.
  2. Ruminant animals.
40
Q

What is the most important feed grain?

A

Corn.

41
Q

Why is corn the most important feed grain?

A
  1. Highest DE content of all cereal grains.
  2. Overproduced.
  3. Inexpensive.
42
Q

What is the energy profile of corn?

A
  1. High in starch.
  2. High in unsaturated fats.
  3. Roughly 4% oil.
  4. Low in fiber.
43
Q

What is the protein profile of corn?

A
  1. 9% CP.
  2. Poor quality protein (insufficient amount of essential amino acids) because of the high zein (protein) content.
44
Q

What is the mineral profile of corn?

A
  1. Low calcium.
  2. High in unavailable phosphorous, usually bound to phytate.
45
Q

How is the unavailable phosphorous in corn made available to the animal?

A

The feed additive phytase.

46
Q

What is the vitamin profile of corn?

A
  1. High vitamin A due to carotenoid pigments.
  2. Xanthophylls (pigment, not vitamin).
  3. Low in niacin (Vitamin B3).
47
Q

Why are carotenoid pigments and xanthophylls important?

A

They provide the yellow color to chicken legs, egg yolks, and the yellowish-tinge to meat.

48
Q

What is a deleterious factor associated with corn?

A

Aspergillus flavus.

49
Q

What is aspergillus flavus?

A

A fungus that grows on live and stored corn that releases aflatoxin, a type of mycotoxin.

50
Q

What are the preferred conditions for Aspergillus flavus growth?

A

Hot and humid conditions.

51
Q

What affects does aflatoxin have on animals?

A
  1. Reduced feed intake.
  2. Diarrhea.
  3. Liver damage.
  4. Reduced growth.
52
Q

What two cereal grains are good substitutes for corn?

A
  1. Sorghum.
  2. Millet.
53
Q

What type of environment do sorghum and millet grow in?

A

Semiarid tropics.
*Corn cannot grow here.

54
Q

What type of feed is millet commonly found in?

A

Bird seed.

55
Q

What is the alternative name for sorghum?

A

Milo.

56
Q

What is the energy profile of sorghum*?
*Millet has the same properties.

A
  1. Similar to corn.
  2. Requires processing (breaking the outer coating of the seed) to improve digestibility.
57
Q

What is the protein profile of sorghum?

A
  1. 10% CP.
  2. Poor quality (low availability of amino acids).
58
Q

What deleterious factor is associated with sorghum?

A

Condensed tannins in the seed.

59
Q

How do condensed tannins affect animals?

A
  1. React with proteins and make them unavailable. Processing methods (chemicals) can overcome this.
  2. Astringent flavor that reduces feed intake.
60
Q

What cereal grain is most commonly used for human consumption, and for animals only in excess?

A

Wheat.

61
Q

What is the energy profile of wheat?

A

Similar to corn.

62
Q

What is the protein profile of wheat?

A

13% CP.

63
Q

Where is wheat commonly found when given to animals?

A

In pellets due to wheat gluten acting as a binding agent.

64
Q

What is the deleterious factor of wheat?

A

Pentosans. (5-carbon sugar).

65
Q

What affect do pentosans have on animals?

A

Causes diarrhea due to its poor digestibility.

66
Q

What is the energy profile of barley?

A

Lower than corn.

67
Q

What is the protein profile of barley?

A

12% CP.

68
Q

What is the mineral profile of barley?

A

Phosphorous bound to phytate.
*Phytase needs to be added.

69
Q

What is the deleterious factor of barley?

A

Contains beta-glucans.

70
Q

What affect does beta-glucans have on animals?

A
  1. Reduces digesta flow rate and lipid absorption.
  2. Causes sticky excreta in poultry, blocking the vent and cloaca.
    *Counteracted using glucanases.
71
Q

Why are oats most commonly used for humans (horses being the exception)?

A

Oats are expensive.

72
Q

What is the energy profile of oats?

A
  1. Low.
  2. High in soluble fiber.
  3. Can be processed (flaked, rolled) to improve digestibility.
73
Q

What is the protein profile of oats?

A
  1. 12% CP.
  2. High quality protein.
74
Q

What is the energy profile of rye?

A

Similar to barley and oats.

75
Q

What is the protein profile of rye?

A

12% CP.

76
Q

What is the deleterious factor associated with rye?

A

Ergot.

77
Q

What is ergot?

A

A fungus that grows on rye grass and other grasses that produces compounds that cannot be combated by feed additives.

78
Q

What does ergot do to animals?

A
  1. Necrosis of the extremities (hoof tips, ear tips, tail tips).
  2. Abortions.
  3. Agalactia.
  4. Reduced growth.
79
Q

What are the deleterious factors of rye?

A
  1. Pentosans.
  2. Pectins.
80
Q

What do pectins do to animals?

A
  1. Poor growth.
  2. Binds feedstuffs, limiting digestibility.
  3. Sticky excreta.
81
Q

What seed is normally provided alongside cereal grains?

A

Buckwheat.

82
Q

What is the energy profile of buckwheat?

A

Similar energy to corn.

83
Q

What is the protein profile of buckwheat?

A
  1. 11% CP.
  2. High quality protein.
84
Q

What deleterious factor is in buckwheat?

A

Fagopyrins.

85
Q

What effect does fagopyrin have on animals?

A

It causes photosensitization in light-skinned animals, leading to skin lesions.

86
Q

What animals are unaffected by most of the deleterious factors in carbohydrates?

A

Ruminants, due to the microbes in the rumen breaking down the compounds.

87
Q

What is the carbohydrate profile of liquid molasses?

A

48% sugar.

88
Q

What is the protein profile of liquid molasses?

A

3-4% CP.

89
Q

What is the maximum % of the diet that liquid molasses can be?

A

30%, otherwise it has a laxative effect.

90
Q

What % of the diet does liquid molasses normally compose?

A

2-5%.

91
Q

Is liquid molasses fed to meet carbohydrate requirements?

A

No, it is fed for palatability.

92
Q

What animals can develop molasses toxicity?

A

Ruminants.

93
Q

How does molasses toxicity occur?

A

Molasses, when fed with inadequate forages causes the overproduction of butyrate by microbes, leading to ketosis. Causes blindness and incoordination.

94
Q

What are dried by-products?

A

What is leftover after products for human consumption have been made.

95
Q

What are 3 common dried by-products?

A
  1. Beet pulp.
  2. Dried citrus pulp.
  3. Dried bakery by-product.

ANS 328 I: Principles of Nutrition (8 decks)

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