child psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

what is crystallised intelligence (gc)?

A

knowledge we have learnt

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2
Q

what is fluid intelligence (gf)

A

knowledge that is innate

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3
Q

aim of van leeuwen

A

to investigate the genetic relationship between family members and IQ

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4
Q

participants of van leeuwen

A

112 families from the Netherlands

had either monozygotic/dizygotic twins plus a sibling aged between 9 and 14, and all had 2 parents

all passed screening for disabilities, mental illness and metal materials (that may affect MRI scans)

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5
Q

method of van leeuwen

A

parents signed consent forms. the children got a present for taking part.

they collected biological data, hormonal data and did MRI scans

the cognitive testing was based on Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices for the children, and their parents did Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices

They arrived between 9 and 11 am

they got 3 breaks

the whole testing procedure took 5 hours

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6
Q

what is a raven matrices test?

A

a non-verbal ‘cultural fair’ multiple choice IQ test out of 60 that measures fluid intelligence. this includes reasoning and problem solving

it gets more difficult as it progresses

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7
Q

what were the result of van leeuwen

A

no differences in IQ scores between males and females across parents, siblings and twins

MZ twins had more similar IQ scores compared to DZ twins and also compared to their siblings and parents

high correlation between parents’ IQ and children’s IQs. found the heritability estimate for intelligence was about 67% (the rest could be down to environmental factors)

parents had similar IQ scores– do parents seek each other with similar intelligence levels? (called assortative mating)

for lower IQ groups, environment seemed to have more of an effect on their IQs compared to high IQ groups

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8
Q

what are the ways of assessing intelligence?

A

stanford binet test

wechsler intelligence scale

sternberg triarchic test (STAT)

human figure drawing test (goodenough-harris)

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8
Q

conclusions of van leeuwen

A

the more similar the genetic makeup, the more similar IQ– IQ could be inherited

environment could be more important for children with a genetic predisposition for low IQ

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9
Q

what is the wechsler intelligence scale

A

created as wechsler said the stanford-binet relied too much on verbal ability

there is a version for adults, children, and pre-school children

looks at factors such as verbal comprehension, processing speed, visual puzzles etc

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9
Q

what is the stanford binet test

A

one of the first tests developed to identify children’s cognitive ability

the fifth edition can be administered to individuals as early as two years of age. it assesses both verbal and nonverbal domains

these factors include fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory

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10
Q

what is the sternberg triarchic test

A

consists of multiple choice questions that assess the 3 aspects from the triarchic theory: analytic (conventional), practical and creative

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11
Q

what is the human figure drawing test? (goodenough-harris)

A

a cognitive test used to measure intelligence through drawings

when used on children, they may be asked to draw a man, a woman, or themselves

pictures are scored using a scale

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12
Q

when does brain development happen

A

begins at conception and continues throughout childhood until the age of about 25. the brain continues to develop during adulthood and old age

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13
Q

how can we investigate brain development

A

one way of investigating brain development is to study the development of structures in the brain and then see if this changes with specific behaviours (to see if the two are linked)

however, we must also take into account individual differences: not everyone’s brain and behaviour develop at the same rate

ethically, we cannot manipulate brain development so research is restricted

another way of studying brain development is to look at behavioural disorders and then trying to identify brain abnormalities associated with it

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14
Q

what is grey matter

A

is made up of nerve cells and makes up about 40% of the adult brain

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15
Q

what is white matter

A

white matter carries messages to and from grey matter

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16
Q

how do volumes of white and grey matter change over time

A

volumes of grey matter tend to begin to decline around 6-7 years old and this continues through adolescence, whereas white matter volumes increase over the same time period

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17
Q

how is the prefrontal cortex and risk taking behaviour related

A

prefrontal cortex less developed in the adolescent brain

acts as an ‘emergency brake’

it is involved with decision making, high level reasoning and self control

the lack of development in adolescents may explain why they’re more predisposed to risky behaviour than adults

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18
Q

what is the role of the ventral striatum

A

this matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex, and involves rewards

perhaps with the excitable reward centre overly active in adolescents, and the prefrontal cortex unable to control it, this may explain why adolescents engage in more risky behaviours

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19
Q

what was the sample of eshel 2007 (risk taking)

A

18 adolescents aged 9-17, and 16 adults aged 20-40

recruited through newspaper advert

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20
Q

what was eshel’s study

A

the ps did a monetary decision making task (gambling) whilst doing an fMRI scan

group comparisons revealed greater activation in the frontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex in adults than adolescents when making risky decisions

reduced activity in these areas correlated with greater risk taking performance in adolescents and in the combined group

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21
Q

aim of barkley-levenson and galvan

A

to investigate the influence of brain development on risk taking behaviour

to see if there are biological and behavioural differences between adults and adolescents when gambling

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22
Q

sample of barkley levenson

A

19 right handed adults from the USA (11 females, 8 males) (aged between 25 and 30)

also 22 right handed 13-17 year olds, 11 of each gender.

after the research, they ended up with a final size of 20 adolescents and 17 adults for analysis

recruited using a poster and internet advert campaign at the University of California

obtained consent from the ps themselves or their parents if they were under 16

nobody had a previous diagnosis of mental or neurological illness

no one had any metal in their body bc MRI scan

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23
Q

method of barkley levenson: intake session

A

the ps were asked to complete some info on their income, including the source and the amount of spending money they had per month

they were then familiarised with the MRI scanner using a mock version of the scanner

they were given $20 for taking part and were told they would be able to gamble and win up to another $20 (so would get $40 in total) or could lose up to $20. this meant they had ownership of the money and would have an interest in increasing, keeping or losing it (if it didnt feel like their own money they wouldnt care)

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24
Q

method of barkley levenson: after the intake session

A

one week after the intake session, ps had to complete a gambling task whilst undergoing an fMRI

during the scan they were shown a ‘spinner’ that told them how much money could be won or lost on that gamble

they could either accept or reject the gamble

they had 144 ‘spinner’ trials each, and 24 gain only trials and 24 lose only trials

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25
Q

behavioural results of barkley levenson

A

adolescents behaved similarly to the adults when there was no risk involved (eg if there was a gain only trial) and neither accepted gambles with negative expected value (ie more to lose, less to win)

the higher the expected value of the win, the more likely adolescents were to accept the gamble compared to adults

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26
Q

neurological results of barkley levenson

A

more activity in adolescents’ ventral striatum compared to adults (who showed virtually no activation) when the expected value to win was high– when the potential reward was high, their VS activity was high

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27
Q

conclusions of barkley levenson

A

the adolescent brain places greater value on potential rewards

suggests there are maturational changes in the VS

the adolescent brain is more focused on winning a larger amount than losing a smaller amount

heightened sensitivity to reward during adolescence

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28
Q

what are the potential strategies to reduce risk taking

A

education

direct education programmes

involvement of parents

modelling

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29
Q

how can education reduce risk taking as a strategy+ evidence?

A

make sure people are fully aware of the potential risks, which might make the reward seem less appealing and not worth the risk

one programme by Old et al. found that when parents were provided with training on how to cope with stressors, their children did better in school and had lower rates of conduct disorder (which can result in impulsivity)

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30
Q

how can direct education (eg safe driving campaigns) be used to reduce risk taking

A

safe driving campaigns exist in places like USA. in USA, adolescents don’t get a full licence until they have completed a probationary period. this means they are not allowed to for example drive at night

the idea is that bc this a new experience, there needs to be more supervision until the skill is fully mastered

McCarrt found that this programme saw a reduction in crashes after 6 monthd

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31
Q

how can parental monitoring be used to reduce risk taking (+evidence)

A

if young adults cannot correctly assess risk and get too enticed by reward, then parents should talk to their children and help them to understand potential risks

parents should set expectations, act to keep track of their teen, and respond when their teens break the rules

Steinberg found that authoritative parents (firm but warm) raised children who were more mature and less likely to engage in risky or antisocial behaviour

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32
Q

how can modelling reduce risk taking

A

based on Social Learning Theory

Parents and teachers should model non-risky behaviours to young adults. Make sure young adults are exposed to/told about people who have taken risks and been negatively affected too (vicarious operant conditioning)

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33
Q

what is the cognitive information processing model?

A

attention is paid > stimulus is perceived > stimulus is consigned to memory if necessary > the information in the memory is used to solve a problem

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34
Q

what are some examples of different types of perception

A

visual, auditory and depth, for example.

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35
Q

who was kenge and what does he have to do with perception?

A

Kenge was part of a Bambuti group in the Democratic Republic of Congo. He acted as an assistant with a researcher.

during one expedition, Kenge and the researcher came across a clearing in the woods (clearings were very rare to come by as Kenge was always surrounded by trees)

Kenge pointed at some mountains in the distance and asked the researcher if they were hills or clouds

he also saw a herd of buffalo in the distance and asked which insects they were

because Kenge had spent so much time in the woods with a lack of experience of distance, so he never learned relative size

Kenge was able to pick up on depth perception with no more errors as he became more exposed to distance

the conclusion from this is that depth perception is affected by environmental factors

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36
Q

what is the perceptual development of babies like

A

at birth, a baby can detect light and motion and make out faces/ large shapes

by 1 month, a baby can make eye contact and focus on objects about 12 inches away

by 3-4 months old, a baby can focus on objects up to 3 feet away

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37
Q

what did fantz find about babies and pattern perception?

A

he found that babies prefer complex patterns as opposed to simple ones

he also found that new born babies prefer patterns that resemble a human face

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38
Q

how do babies perceive faces?

A

babies appear to have an innate skill to be able to perceive human faces within a few hours of being born

they can discriminate between their mother’s face and that of another female

they also prefer attractive faces rather than unattractive, and those of their own ethnicity

at 5 months old, children can differentiate between smiles of different intensities

by 9 months old, babies can recognise a female face from a male one

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39
Q

what does the term ‘height in plane’ refer to?

A

an object further away will show higher in the image

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40
Q

what does the term ‘relative size’ refer to?

A

the smaller the object appears, the further away it is

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41
Q

what is meant by the term ‘superimposition’?

A

one object in front of another shows the front object is nearer

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42
Q

what is meant by the term ‘texture gradient’

A

the texture of an object gets more detailed as it becomes closer

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43
Q

what is meant by the term ‘linear perspective’?

A

if something goes into the distance, the lines of the edge appear to get closer together

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44
Q

what did fantz do?

A

he developed a method of recording a child’s preference for an object based on how long they gazed at it

the child is placed in front of a stimulus, or two stimuli, and a researcher looks through the apparatus to time how long the child spends looking at a particular stimulus. the longer the gaze, the more the child preferred that stimulus

as the researcher is behind the stimulus, this should remove some possible experimenter bias, as the researcher would not know which stimulus the baby was looking at.

it was also possible to research very small children as they did not need to be able to support themselves in any way

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45
Q

what did blakemore and cooper do regarding perception?

A

kept kittens in the dark, except for a five hour period each day when the kitten was either in a vertically striped or horizontally striped environment

at 5 months old, the kittens exposed to vertical strips would only reach out if a vertical pointer was moved in front of them, and vice versa for horizontally reared kittens

they found the vertical kittens did not possess cells in the visual cortex that would respond to horizontal light

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46
Q

what research has been done on the perception of chicks?

A

in 1837, Spalding kept chicks in a black sack made from a soft flannel material when they hatched. When he released them several days later, they could run to their mother, avoiding obstacles, implying that they had the innate skill to identify where objects were and how to avoid them

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47
Q

what research has been done on the perception of rats?

A

in 1934, Lashley and Russel used rats that were kept in the dark for 3 months; when tested they used to more effort to jump large gaps than smaller gaps, implying that they knew something was further away

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48
Q

what research has been done on the perception of chimps

A

Riesen (1965) compared 3 chimps– Debi, Kova and Lad.

Debi was kept in darkness, Kova spent 1.5 hours a day exposed to unpatterned light, and Lad was reared in normal light

Debi suffered retinal damage.

Lad was fine.

Kova did not suffer from retinal damage, but her perceptual development was underdeveloped

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49
Q

what research has been done on the perception of salamanders

A

Sperry looked at salamanders and surgically turned their eyes upside down by rotating the optic nerve, to see if they could learn to see the right way up

they reacted as if the world was upside down, and no amount of training could change their response

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50
Q

what was the research design of gibson and walk?

A

repeated measures

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51
Q

what was the aim of gibson and walk

A

to investigate if young animals and children were able to perceive depth innately using the visual cliff

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52
Q

who were the participants in gibson and walk

A

36 babies between 6 and 14 months old

all could crawl independently

each infant had their mother present

the study was also conducted on kittens and lambs and kids etc

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53
Q

what was the visual cliff like in gibson and walk

A

the ‘visual’ cliff is a transparent glass table with no actual drop

one half of the cliff has an opaque chequered pattern just below the glass, but the other half has the pattern on the floor, so it appears that there is a drop but there actually is not

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54
Q

what was the method of gibson and walk

A

the baby was placed on the centre of the visual cliff apparatus

their mother would stand either at the shallow end or deep end of the box and call for their baby to crawl towards them

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55
Q

what was the DV of gibson and walk

A

will the babies crawl to their mother across the deep side of the apparatus?

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56
Q

what were the quantitative results of gibson and walk

A

27 out of the 36 children moved off the centre board

all of those 27 babies crossed the shallow side to their mother at least once

only 3 of them crossed the deep side to get to their mother

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57
Q

what were the qualitative results of gibson and walk

A

children would peep through the glass of the cliff and back away

some would test the glass for solidarity

when the mother was at the deep side of the cliff, most children would crawl away from her or sit and cry

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58
Q

conclusions of gibson and walk

A

the children could perceive depth by the time they could crawl

however they appeared not to be aware of the depth of the cliff edge, as they inadvertently used the glass on the deep side

by the time children could crawl, they have had more months interacting with the environment, so it was hard to tell if the ability to perceive depth is innate or learnt

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59
Q

what was the finding for chicks in gibson and walk

A

one day old chicks chose the shallow side nearly 100% of the time

chicks less than 24 hours old would never cross the cliffs

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60
Q

goat kids and lambs findings for gibson and walk

A

at less than a day old, goat kids and lambs would not step on the steep side of the cliff

they would refuse to put their feet down / would go limp if forced to go on the cliff side

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61
Q

kitten findings in gibson and walk

A

at about 4 weeks old, when they could move freely, they would avoid the cliff

other dark-reared kittens did not avoid the cliff, but after a week of light exposure,developed depth perception

62
Q

rats findings in gibson and walk

A

would go across the deep side as they could feel the glass with their whiskers. less reliant on vision and use their whiskers

63
Q

what are strategies to develop perception in young children

A

sensory integrative therapy

developing constancy skill using toys or objects around the home

developmental toys

64
Q

what is sensory integrative therapy

A

can be used to help children with perceptual difficulties

uses activities such as playing with a ball to develop balance and hand eye coordination, and dancing to music to help with auditory perception

the activities used in the therapy become progressively more complex as the child achieves each one

65
Q

evidence for the effectiveness of sensory integrative therapy?

A

previous research in 2014 investigated 34 children with autism aged between 3 and 5. The children completed the therapy for 6 months.

it was found there was a significant difference in motor skills after 6 months

66
Q

what are constancy skills and how can we help them develop

A

constancy skills refers to the ability to recognise stimuli even when they are viewed from a different angle or in a different environment

can use real life objects to identify shapes, eg using a picture frame to show that the shape is a rectangle

67
Q

how can developmental toys be used to help develop perception in young children

A

for example, shape sorting toys can help develop visual and tactile perception

games such as musical statues can help auditory perception

musical/auditory story books can also help with auditory perception

68
Q

what are the four stages of cognitive development according to piaget

A

SENSORIMOTOR: 0-2 years. children learn knowledge from physical experiences and sensory input. Eg object permanence

PRE-OPERATIONAL: 2/3 - 7ish years. memory and imagination improves. Thinking is not yet logical and the child will believe what they can see, everyone else can too. lang develops

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL: 7-11ish years. child begins to understand logic and can think beyond what they can actually see. develops conversation skills

FORMAL OPERATIONAL: 11 yrs- adult. Formal logic. Not everyone reaches this stage– most sophisticated stage of thinking

69
Q

what did vygotsky say abt cognitive development

A

thought differently to Piaget as Vygotsky suggested social factors can influence learning, such as guided learning by teachers, parents and/or peers

he suggested a zone of proximal development, which is the difference between what a learner can do without help and with help

70
Q

what did bruner say about cognitive development

A

suggests information is structured so new knowledge is taught at a simplified level first, and then revisited at more complex levels later

71
Q

what was the aim of samuel and bryant

A

to challenge previous research by Piaget to further investigate what affects conservation skills

72
Q

sample of samuel and bryant

A

252 children from Devon were assessed on their ability to conserve number, mass and volume

73
Q

what was the number task in samuel and bryant

A

children were shown two rows of 6 counters of equal length, one row was then bunched up, children were asked which row ‘had more’

74
Q

what was the mass task in samuel and bryant

A

children were shown two equal Playdoh cylinder shapes. One shape was then rolled into a sausage shape. Children were asked which shape had more playdoh

75
Q

what was the volume task in samuel and bryant

A

children were shown two identical glasses with the same amount of liquid inside. The liquid from one glass was then poured into a narrower or shallower container. children were asked which glass had more liquid

76
Q

findings of samuel and bryant

A

the older children made fewer errors on the conservation tasks than the younger children

children also made fewer errors on the number task and most errors on the volume task

77
Q

what was the aim of freund

A

to investigate whether young children learn more effectively through discovery learning or by scaffolding

78
Q

sample of freund

A

30 3 year olds and 30 5 year olds. racially mixed suburban communities

79
Q

procedure of freund

A

children were asked to help a puppet decide which furniture should be placed in different rooms of a doll house.

the doll house was 78cm and 62cm wide

there were 36 pieces of furniture and 6 distraction pieces

in condition 1, the mother guided but did not teach the child (scaffolding)

in condition two, children were left to do it on their own (discovery learning)

80
Q

results of freund

A

children assisted by their mother performed better than children working independently

81
Q

what is a spiral curriculum

A

key features of the spiral curriculum based on Bruner’s work are:

  • the student revisits a topic several times throughout their school careers
  • the complexity of the topic increases with each revisit
  • new learning has a relationship with old learning
82
Q

what is scaffolding

A

process that enables a child to solve a problem with help that would be beyond their unassisted efforts

83
Q

what is discovery learning

A

inquiry-based learning method that takes a constructivist approach to education, where students are encouraged to construct their own knowledge through a self-directed learning process

84
Q

aim of wood

A

to investigate the impact of tutoring on children aged 3 4 and 5 years when asked to build a 3D structure

85
Q

participants of wood

A

30 children, equally divided into 3, 4 and 5 year olds, and each age group equally divided between girls and boys

all were accompanied by their parents who lived within a 5 mile radius of Cambridge, Massachusetts, and had replied to adverts for volunteers

predominantly middle or lower-middle class

86
Q

what was the task in wood

A

each child tested individually

task took between 20 mins to 1 hour

task was within reach of child’s ability but not doable alone

they had to build a pyramid out of 21 blocks. there were 6 levels to the pyramid. it measured about 9 inches high with a 9 inch square base

87
Q

what was the method of wood

A

observations were carried out of the ‘natural’ tutorials

they wanted to see how the children responded to a tutor

the tutor used a standardised set of prescribed actions

the tutor had to make sure that the child did as much as possible by themselves, using some verbal instructions where needed, only physically intervening if they needed it

the child came in and was seated at a table with 21 blocks. they were allowed to play with these for 5 minutes

the tutor showed them how to make a pair of blocks and asked the child to make some more

it took 15 constructions to make the pyramid

88
Q

what were the tutors standardised responses to children in wood

A

if the child ignored the tutor and continued to play, the tutor would again demonstrate how to put 2 blocks together

if the child took the blocks the tutor had just made and played with the, the tutor would verbally draw attention to the fact that the final construction was not completed.

if the child could take up the blocks and manipulate them in a similar way, the tutor would verbally point out any errors they were making, if necessary

89
Q

how were the children scored in wood

A

structured observation with behavioural checklists, eg manipulated several pieces vs assembled pieces previously made up, or assisted vs unassisted

if a child picked up any disassembled constructions, it was noted whether or not they went on to reassemble them again

90
Q

what was the inter rater reliability of wood

A

there were 2 independent scorers who achieved 94% agreement for inter rater reliability

91
Q

what were the findings of wood

A

younger children (3 yr olds) performed worse on the task than the older children (4 + 5 year olds)

no 3 year olds put 4 blocks together correctly, whereas all older children put 4 blocks together correctly, at least one

younger children needed more tutor help to construct blocks

younger children often ignored the tutor (median on 11 occasions)

tutor had to intervene 4x as many times with the 3 year olds than the 5 year olds

92
Q

what are cognitive strategies to improve revision or learning

A

the method of loci/memory palace

making use of context dependent memory (Grant)

use of acronyms, layering and mindmaps

93
Q

what is the method of loci

A

a memory technique based on the assumption that you can better remember places you are familiar with eg home, college

it involves linking the to-be-learned info with specific locations:

  • think of a place eg home
  • visualise locations in place
  • mentally walk self through place and mentally place each bit of information to one of those locations
  • to retrieve this, visualise place, ‘looking’ at each location that has been allocated info
94
Q

what research supports the method of loci

A

previous research in 2014 compared medical students who had been taught about diabetes.

some of these students used MoL to revise the content compared to the rest of the ps who completed worksheets.

they then had a test

they found that students who used the MoL remembered significantly more content than those who did not

95
Q

what is attachment

A

the term used to refer to the emotional relationships between a baby and the people who spend the most time caring for the baby

it provides the baby with a comforting sense of security and safety

96
Q

what is the behaviourist theory of attachment

A

assumes babies learn attachment through reinforcement or association

eg baby learns to associate their needs with the response from the caregiver and then relies on the carer to respond to them in the future

97
Q

what is the evolutionary theory of attachment

A

assumes attachment behaviour is innate and has evolved over time to ensure the survival of the species

if animals/humans do not tend to their babies, then the babies would not survive

98
Q

what is the psychodynamic theory of attachment

A

suggests the childhood relationships we had with our caregivers shape our personalities and the attachments we have in adult relationships

also suggests infants become attached to the source of pleasure

99
Q

what did harlow do

A

investigated the effects of monkeys being separated from their mothers from birth

the monkeys were isolated and placed in a cage with one wire structure ‘mother’ and one ‘soft cloth mother’

monkeys preferred cloth mother even if she had no milk

supports evolutionary theory of attachment

100
Q

what did bowlby do

A

compared 44 juvenile thieves with 44 non thieves from a delinquency centre with emotional problems

found more than half the thieves had been separated from their mothers compared to just 2 in the control group

also found some of the thieves to show psychopathic traits such as lack of empathy/guilt

the findings suggest that experiencing disrupted attachments early in life is linked to crime

101
Q

aim of hodges and tizzard

A

used a longitudinal study to investigate the effects of being in a children’s home for the first 2 years of life, then adopted / returned to biological mother

102
Q

sample of hodges and tizzard

A

65 children who had been in a children’s home from only a few months old + a control group who had not been in a home

103
Q

procedure of hodges and tizzard

A

children were assessed for social and emotional competence at age 4, 8 and 16

104
Q

findings of hodges and tizzard

A

at age 4, none of the institutionalised children formed attachments, but by the age of 8, those who were adopted had good attachments

found that children who did form attachments were different to non-institutionalised children

105
Q

what are the types of attachment

A

secure

insecure avoidant

insecure resistant

insecure disorganised

106
Q

what is a secure attachment style

A

carer is sensitive and loving, such as picking up child and reassuring them

child then feels confident caregiver can meet needs. easily soothed by caregiver when upset

107
Q

what is an insecure avoidant attachment style

A

carer is insensitive and rejecting, such as ridiculing or becoming annoyed

child becomes independent and avoids caregiver in times of need

108
Q

what is an insecure resistant attachment style

A

carer is insensitive and inconsistent, such as over reacting or highlighting the carer’s own needs

child becomes clingy/exaggerates distress and anger to ensure caregiver notices, but will be rejecting of caregiver when they do engage

109
Q

what is an insecure disorganised attachment style

A

carer is insensitive and not normal, such as frightening or frightened, or sexualised, a response not always shown when child is distressed

child shows bizarre and contradictory behaviours, such as freezing or running away from parent

110
Q

aim of ainsworth and bell

A

to use a lab setting a conduct a controlled observation to investigate attachment behaviours by placing babies in ‘strange situations’

111
Q

participants of ainsworth and bell

A

56 children brought up in a family with white, middle class parents

they were found through paediatricians in a paediatricians practice

23 were observed from birth and were 51 weeks old when put into the strange situation

the other 33 were ps from a different study and were observed when they were 49 weeks old

all of the children were just under 1 year old

112
Q

procedure of ainsworth and bell

A

each child was tested individually in the strange situation episodes

the whole situation was meant to reflect what would happen in everyday life

the room was 9’x9’, and was marked into 16 squares for the observers to record the position of the child

at one end of the room was a child’s chair surrounded by toys

at the other end was a chair for their mother, and near the door was a chair for the stranger

the child was put in the room and left to move freely

the observers were in an adjoining room and observed via a one-way mirror

113
Q

what was episode 3 in ainsworth and bell

A

stranger enters, sits for 1 minute, talks to mother for 1 minute and approaches baby with toy

mother leaves after 3 minutes

114
Q

what was episode four in ainsworth and bell

A

stranger sits if baby happy

if baby inactive, stranger engages with toys

if baby distressed, stranger tries to distract or comfort, for 3 minutes unless child cannot be comforted

115
Q

what was episode 5 of ainsworth and bell

A

mother enters and waits at door for baby to see and respond

stranger leaves

once child is settled with toys, mother leaves saying ‘bye bye’

116
Q

what is episode 6 in ainsworth and bell

A

baby left alone for 3 minutes unless distressed

117
Q

how was behaviour measured in ainsworth and Bell

A

behavioural checklist

recorded every 15 seconds so they used time sampling

each behaviour was recorded for its strength (7 point scale), frequency and duration

types of behaviour included search behaviour, contact resisting and contact maintaining, etc

118
Q

inter rater reliability in ainsworth and bell

A

over 90%

119
Q

results of ainsworth: exploratory behaviour

A

decreased when the child was left with the stranger

child showed more interest when mother engaged with child but not when stranger engaged with child

120
Q

results of ainsworth: crying

A

minimal crying when the stranger entered the room but increased when mother left

crying was at its peak in episode 6 and did not decrease when the stranger returned in stage 7

121
Q

results of ainsworth: search behaviour

A

increased when stranger was present without mother and increased most when left alone in episode 6

122
Q

results of ainsworth: proximity seeking and contact maintaining behaviours

A

contact maintaining shown most when mother returned but less towards stranger

123
Q

results of ainsworth: contact-resisting and proximity avoiding behaviours

A

avoidant behaviours (eg ignoring) shown mostly when mother returned

about a third of babies resisted contact towards mother when she returned in episode 5

124
Q

conclusions of ainsworth

A

attachment figure is used as a secure base for exploration by the infant

attachment is different between caregiver and child, and stranger and child

125
Q

what are the strategies to develop an attachment friendly environment

A

allocate keyworkers to children

ensure staff receive adequate training

nurture groups

126
Q

describe allocating keyworkers to children as a strategy to develop an attachment-friendly environment

A

children should be allocated to a keyworker before they start at, for example, nursery

children should be invited in for settling in sessions to get to know the keyworker before they start, as well as exploring the environment and meeting other children

keyworkers should greet and say goodbye to the child

the parent/guardian of the child should stay within close proximity whilst their child explores the nursery environment during the settling in sessions

SUPPORTED BY AINSWORTH AND BELL

127
Q

‘ensure staff receive adequate training’ strategy to develop an attachment friendly environment?

A

key workers should be taught about ‘affect synchrony’, which is the caregivers ability to pick up cues from the child and adapt their behaviours accordingly, eg if child cries, caregiver should speak soothingly to them

staff should show a cuddly exterior to help children feel their needs are being met

staff should model secure attachment behaviours as SLT suggests individuals observe role models and will imitate behaviours

staff training should also include teaching the staff that initially, the children may not want to engage with play with the keyworker until they are more attached to the keyworker

128
Q

what are nurture groups

A

in-school, teacher-led psychosocial interventions focused on supporting the social, emotional and behavioural difficulties of children and young people

classes of 6-12 children/young people, run by two members of staff trained in nurture interventions

focus on supporting students to form attachments to loving and caring adults at school

129
Q

what happens in nurture groups

A

the pupils start their day in mainstream class

they are picked up by the staff and taken to nurture group, a hybrid of home and school

activities include emotional literacy sessions, news sharing, nurture breakfast and regular curriculum activities

children return to their mainstream class for some provision every day

130
Q

evidence supporting nurture groups?

A

based on Bowlby’s attachment theory, that if a child’s early experiences were characterised by missing or distorted nurturing, it can lead to stunted social, emotional and cognitive development

Pyle (2015) found that nurture groups also have a positive impact on the parent-child relationship

131
Q

sample of pike and jennings

A

62 first and second grade students (28 boys, 34 girls)

132
Q

method of pike and jennings

A

participants were exposed to one of 3 commercial videotapes in which either all-boys (traditional condition) or all-girls (nontraditional) were playing with a toy

participants in the control condition were exposed to nontoy commercials

after exposure to one of the conditions, ps performed a toy sort where they were asked if six toys, including the two manipulated toys, were ‘for boys, girls, or both boys and girls’

133
Q

results of pike and jennings

A

participants in the nontraditional condition were more likely to report that the manipulated toys were for both boys and girls than were ps in the traditional condition, who were more likely to report that the manipulated toys were for boys

134
Q

aim of pine and nash

A

to investigate how toy advertising affects children by studying their requests to Father Christmas

135
Q

sample of pine and nash

A

83 children aged from 4.8 to 6.5 years (below the age of 7) from the UK

19 kindergarten 6 year old children from Sweden (where ads aimed at children are banned

136
Q

method of pine and nash

A

children wrote letters to Father Christmas and were interviewed regarding the extent and nature of their TV viewing

137
Q

result of pine and nash

A

UK children requested more products generally than the Swedish children

children who watched more commercial television were found to request a greater number of items from Father Christmas

these children also requested more branded items than children who watched less

however, the children’s requests did not correlate significantly with the most frequently advertised toy products on TV in the build up to Christmas

138
Q

research questions of johnson and young

A

do advertisers use different language scripts for males and females in adverts aimed at preschool and early primary school children?

how is gender used as a code to link products to gender roles

139
Q

aim of johnson and young

A

to analyse children’s toy adverts from the late ’90s to investigate if gender stereotypes are used

140
Q

sample of johnson and young

A

adverts broadcast on commercial TV channels, regional TV channels in New England, USA, and Nickelodeon, were recorded in 1996, 1997 and1999

these channels were accessible to all TV owners and the programmes either side of the advert were childrens cartoons

a total of 478 adverts were analysed

these were only adverts within the programme, not either side of it

the adverts were classified into five categories: food items, toys, educational and public service announcement, recreational facilities, and video and film promotions

there was another category of ‘other’

toy adverts were the main focus: there were 188 of these

141
Q

method of johnson and young

A

researchers conducted a content analysis (creating categories and using tallies) and discourse analysis (analyses tone, use of vocab and speech) on the 478 adverts (of which 147 were the different toy ads)

they analysed names of toys, use of toys, verbs used in the ads themselves, voiceovers, speaking rules of boys and girls, and power discourse

142
Q

what did johnson and young NOT investigate (reductionism)

A

colours, camera angles, ppace, music, etc

also did not investigate how it actually impacts children

143
Q

results of johnson and young: name of toys?

A

found these reinforced gender attributes, eg ‘Big Time Action Hero’ vs ‘Girl Talk’

the name of boy toys typcially reinforce action and violence, whereas girl toy names reinforce nurturing

the girl names signify parenting as a female link to quality

144
Q

johnson and young finding abt the uses of toys

A

researchers categorised adverts according to their type (eg dolls, trucks, games)

even when toys were categorically similar (like Barbie dolls and action figures), they were shown differently, eg boys ones demonstrating more action

this reinforces traditionally polarised ideas about the play activities of boys and girls

145
Q

johnson and young finding abt voiceovers

A

male voice overs were used on boy-orientated adverts and boy-girl orientated ads

89% of girls adverts had female voiceovers

exaggerated gender stylisation was evident in ads aimed at boys or girls, but not in those aimed at both

girl adverts are too high-pitched (voices/singing songs)

boy ads are too wild, loud and aggressive

the voiceovers strive to accentuate gender, sometimes to the point of caricature

146
Q

finding of johnson n young abt verbs used

A

verbs were categorised into types such as:

  • competition/destruction (found 113 times in boy ads compared to 9 times in girls)
  • feeling and nurturing (NEVER found in boy adverts but 66 times in girls)
147
Q

johnson n young finding abt speaking roles of boys n girls

A

girl ads had children speaking more often than boy ads

reinforces the stereotype that boys prefer action n girls prefer talking

148
Q

johnson n young finding abt power discourse

A

words based around power were used in 21% of boy ads and js once in girl ads (n only bc the maker of the Barbie car was Power Wheels)

reinforces the uneven balance of power favouring males

149
Q

implications and conclusions of the findings of johnson n young

A

gender stereotypes are present w/in adverts

when ads only show traditional gender roles, they limit the range of experiences that children feel like they can try out

150
Q

what are the strategies to reduce the IMPACT of advertising that is aimed at children

A

media and literacy lessons at school/education

parental involvement

adverts should follow the advertising guidelines

production techniques

151
Q

media and literacy lessons strategy

A

MediaSmart is a UK literacy programme aimed at 6-11 year olds. It provides educational materials to primary schools (called Be AdWise)

MediaSmart helps teach how to become aware of mass media issues to help with children to understand when they are being manipulated/misled

152
Q

parental involvement strategy (ads)

A

parents should discuss the influence of TV advertising and the use of stereotyping with their children

parents could also monitor TV advertising by watching TV with their children

153
Q

ads should follow ad guidelines strategy

A

eg the ASA (Advertising Standard Authority) guidelines

ads should not show depictions of harmful gender stereotypes, like an ad that depicts a man w his feet up n family members creating a mess around a home while a woman is solely responsible for cleaning up the mess

154
Q

production techniques strategy

A

remove techniques used that encourage imitation (such as humour +jokes, people ‘getting away with behaviour’)

based on SLT

155
Q
A