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Anatomy & Physiology 200 > Chemisty > Flashcards

Chemisty Flashcards

1
Q

Vertical rows in the periodic table

A

Groups. Elements in the same group have the same reactive properties. Number at the top tells us the number of electrons in the valence shell

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2
Q

Horizontal rows in the periodic table

A

Periods/rows. Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.

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3
Q

What are the four most common elements in the human body?

A

Oxygen (65%)
Carbon (19%)
Hydrogen (10%)
Nitrogen (3%)

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4
Q

What eight (non-CHON) elements are also present in the body?

A 
Sulphur
Sodium
Chlorine
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Magnesium
Potassium
(sullen sodden cheese, phobic irate magenta potatoes)
SNaP
CaKCl
FeMg
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5
Q

The Octet Rule

A

Atoms really really want to have 8 electrons in their valence shell. Or none at all.

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6
Q

How many electrons can the various electron shells hold?

A

First shell: 2
Second shell: 8
Any shell in between #2 and the valence shell: 2-18
Valence Shell: 8 (or 0)

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7
Q

Atomic Number

A

The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.
Big number on top of elemental name in periodic table
No two elements have the same number of protons

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8
Q

Atomic Mass

A

The sum of the protons and neutrons
Measured in Daltons
In periodic table, given underneath name of element

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9
Q

Isotope

A

A variation of the same element due to difference in atomic max.
Difference in number of neutrons, since protons never change.

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10
Q

What are the isotope forms of Hydrogen?

A

Normal: no neutron
Deuterium: one neutron
Tritium: two neutrons

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11
Q

Half-life

A

The time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay into a more stable form.

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12
Q

Free Radicals

A

Atoms/molecules with unpaired electrons in their valence shell.
Highly reactive.
In the body, looking to “steal” electrons from cells (oxidation)

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13
Q

Ionic bonds

A

One element donates an electron to the other
Strong normally, but very weak in solution
Tend to form between a metal and non-metal
Ex. NaCl

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14
Q

Anion

A

Element that has gained an electron. Negatively charged

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15
Q

Cation

A

Element that has lost an electron. Positively charged

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16
Q

Ionization

A

The process of gaining or losing an electron

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17
Q

Dissociation

A

When ionic bonds break apart in solution. Produces electrolytes.

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18
Q

Covalent Bonds

A

When atoms share electrons. Very strong bond, and most common type of bond to occur in the body.
Ex. Methane gas. CH4

Have a tendency for polarity (when one atom has a strong attraction for the shared electrons than the other).

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19
Q

Polar Covalent Bond

A

When 2 atoms share the electrons unequally.
Allows greater electro-negativity
Ex. H20. The electron is more attracted to the oxygen, so the H20 molecule is positive on the Hydrogen end and negative on the Oxygen end.

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20
Q

Electro-negativity

A

The power to attract electrons to yourself

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21
Q

NonPolar Covalent Bonds

A

When 2 atoms share electrons equally.

Ex. CH4 (methane)

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22
Q

Hydrogen Bond

A

Weakest of the three bonds
Results from the attraction of opposite parts of molecules, not from electron sharing.
Ex. bonding of water molecules to each other

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23
Q

Chemical Reaction

A

The formation of new products due to the breakdown or creation of bonds

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24
Q

Potential Energy

A

The energy stored by matter due to its position

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25
Q

Kinetic Energy

A

Energy associated with motion or movement of matter

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26
Q

Exergonic reactions

A

Release energy. A+B => AB + heat

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27
Q

Endergonic reactions

A

Require energy to get started. A+B+heat = AB

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28
Q

Activation Energy

A

The amount of energy required to get a reaction occuring

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29
Q

Catalyst

A

Substances that speed up chemical reactions by reducing the activation energy required.
Remains unchanged at the end of the reaction

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30
Q

What are the four types of chemical reaction?

A

Anabolism
Catabolism
Exchange
Reversible

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31
Q

Anabolism

A

aka Synthesis reaction

A + B -> AB

Tend to be endergonic
Important to growth and healing

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32
Q

Catabolism

A

aka Decomposition reaction

AB -> A + B

Tend to be exergonic
Ex. breakdown of glycogen

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33
Q

Exchange Reaction

A

AB + CD -> AD + BC

Compensates for changes to physiological state and metabolism. If too acidic/basic the body will initiate exchange reactions to create buffers to restore homeostasis.

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34
Q

Reversible reactions

A

A + B AB

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35
Q

Inorganic compounds

A

Don’t contain carbon.

Compose about 60% of the body

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36
Q

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

A

Fluid within the cell (part of cytoplasm)

Around 2/3 of total body fluids

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37
Q

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

A

Fluid outside cells
Around 1/3 of total body fluids
Itself composed of 80% interstitial fluids and 20% plasma

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38
Q

Oxidation-reduction reaction

A

oxidation: loss of electrons
reduction: gain of electrons

“Oxidation–reduction reactions are always parallel; when one substance is oxidized, another is reduced at the same time. When a food molecule, such as glucose, is oxidized, the energy produced is used by a cell to carry out its vari- ous functions.”
(Tortora 38)

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39
Q

Plasma

A

ECF found only in blood vessels
Liquid constituent of blood
Approximately 20% of ECF

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40
Q

Solvent

A

An aqueous component with the ability to dissolve

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41
Q

Solutions

A

Made up of solvent (liquid) and solute (substance being dissolved)

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42
Q

Hydrolysis reaction

A

Water is added to break up the substance

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43
Q

Dehydration synthesis reaction

A

Water removed to create larger substances

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44
Q

Hydrophilic

A

Water loving
Anything polar is hydrophilic!!
Hydrophilic solutes will dissolve easily in water

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45
Q

Ion

A

A particle with either a positive or negative charge

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46
Q

Hydrophobic

A

Water fearing
Solutes that carry non-polar covalent bonds
Will not dissolve easily if at all in water
ex. Fats, oils

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47
Q

Heat capacity

A

The ability to absorb or release high amounts of energy with changes to own temperature.

Water has a very high heat capacity because most of the energy in the form of heat is used to break H bonds, so not much left to raise temperature.

48
Q

Mixture

A

Combination of physically blended elements and/or compounds that are NOT held together by chemical bonds

49
Q

Colloid

A

A solution in which the solutes are large enough to scatter light.

50
Q

Suspension

A

A solution in which the solutes will, over time, separate into their different components

51
Q

Viscosity

A

The measure of the physical tendency of a liquid to flow.

52
Q

Mole

A

The measurement of the total number of molecules of a particular substance in a given volume of solution.

Measured in mol/L (aka Avogardro’s number: 10 to the 23rd power x molecules)

53
Q

Acid

A

A substance which dissociates into one or more H+ ion and one or more anions.

Because H+ is a single proton with one positive charge, an acid is referred to as a proton donor.

Because it increases the concentration of H+, the pH is decreased

54
Q

Base

A

A substance which removes H+ from a solution. Usually dissociates into one or more OH- (hydroxide) ions and one or more cations.

Proton acceptor. Causes pH to increase

55
Q

pH

A

Percentage of hydrogen. The expression of acidity/alkalinity. Based on the concentration of H+ moles/litre.

7 = neutral
7 = base

Each number denotes a ten-fold increase in the concentration of H+/litre.

56
Q

Salt

A

A substance which, when dissociated, releases neither H+ nor OH-, but does release cations and anions.

Results from the reaction of an acid with a base.

57
Q

Buffers

A

Chemical systems in the body composed of compounds which remove excess H+ and OH- out of solution so the fluids in the body maintain their pH.

Convert strong acids and bases into weak ones.

Prevent acidosis and alkalosis.

58
Q

Carbonic Acid-Bicarboniate Buffer System

A

If acidic, the bicarbonate ion grabs an excess H+ to create carbonic acid, which is then broken down into water and carbon dioxide.

HCO3 & H+ –> H2CO3 –> H2O & CO2

If basic, carbonic acid breaks down into hydrogen and bicarbonate

H2CO3 –> H+ & HCO3-

59
Q

Phosphate Buffer System

A

If acidic, monohydrogen phosphate (weak base) grabs H+ and becomes dihydrogen phosphate (weak acid)

H+ & HPO4- –> H2PO4-

If basic, dihydrogen phosphate attaches to an excess hydroxide ion to create water and monohydrogen phosphate.

OH- & H2PO4- –> H2O & HPO4-

60
Q

Protein Buffefrs

A

Amine group of amino acids act as weak bases and will buffer acids.

Carboxyl group of amino acids will act as weak acids and will buffer bases.

Hemoglobin will also carry away H+

61
Q

Carbon

A

Atomic #: 6 (therefore 6 protons and 6ish neutrons)
2nd row – so two electron shells
Group IV – so 4 electrons in valence shell

About 18.5% of total body mass

62
Q

Four major categories of organics

A

1) Carbohydrates (CHOs)
2) Lipids (fats)
3) Proteins (made up of amino acids)
4) Nucleic acids (RNA & DNA)
and minor category:
5) ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

63
Q

Organic compounds always contain ______ and are held together by _______ bonds.

A

carbon

covalent

64
Q

Hydrocarbons

A

Carbons bound to hydrogen atoms. Found in carbon skeletons

65
Q

What are the major functional groups in organic chemistry?

A
  1. hydroxyll
  2. sulfhydryl
  3. carbonyl
  4. carboxyl
  5. ester
  6. phosphate
  7. amino
66
Q

Hydroxyl group

A

Contain OH. Polar and hydrophilic.
R-O-H
Alcohol, the sterols

67
Q

Sulfhydryl group

A

aka the Thiols
Contain SH group R-S-H
Help form amino acids

68
Q

Carbonyl group

A

Ketones (breakdown products of fats and proteins) and aldehydes (dehydrogenated alcohols).

Polar and hydrophilic.

CO or CHO

69
Q

Carboxyl group

A

Contain COOH
Help form amino acids
Can act as acids.
Hydrophilic.

70
Q

Ester group

A

Found in fats, oils and triglycerides.
Also includes aspirin.

COO

71
Q

Phosphate group.

A

Contains PO4.

Key component of ATP

72
Q

Amino group

A

Contains NH3 (or NH2).
Can act as a base
Contributes to amino acids

73
Q

Monomer

A

Smallest unit of any organic molecule

74
Q

Polymer

A

Large organic molecule made of of monomers.

Usually formed by a dehydration synthesis reaction.

75
Q

Isomer

A

Molecules with the same chemical formula but different chemical structures, allowing for different reactive properties.

Ex. glucose and fructose

76
Q

Dehydration reaction

A

Removal of water to form peptide bond

A + B –> AB + H2O

77
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Addition of water to break peptide bonds

AB + H2O –> A + B

78
Q

Peptide bond

A

the primary linkage of all protein structures; the chemical bond between the carboxyl groups and amino groups that unites a peptide

A type of covalent bond.

79
Q

Carbohydrates

A

CHOs
Molecules of carbon saturated with H+ and O2
Mostly end with -ose
3% body mass

80
Q

Three classifications of carbohydrates

A
  1. monosaccharides
  2. disaccharides
  3. polysaccharides
81
Q

Monosaccharides

A 
Simplest carbohydrate.  Monomner
Include:
  Glucose (in blood)
  Fructose (in Fruit)
  Galactose (in milk)
  Deoxyribose (in DNA)
  Riboses (in RNA)
82
Q

Galactosemia

A

a genetic condition in which not enough galactase is produced to break down the galactose. Not the same as lactose intolerance

83
Q

Disaccharide

A

Product of 2 monosaccharides united via dehydration synthesis

Ex. glucose + fructose –> sucrose + H2O
glucose + galactose –> lactose + H2O

84
Q

Polysaccharide

A

Tens of thousands of monosaccharides in combination.
Include:
Glycogen (stored energy – found in muscles and the liver)
Starches (found in plants – used for pasta and other gustatory goodness)
Cellulose (stored in plants; indigestible)

85
Q

Sources of ATP

A

Adenosine triphosphate

1) creatine phosphate
2) anaerobic metabolism
3) aerobic metabolism

86
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Breakdown of glycogen into glucose

87
Q

Glycolysis

A

Breakdown of glycogen into pyruvate and indirectly into ATP

88
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Making glycogen from glucose

89
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

Making glucose from fats or proteins.

90
Q

Lipids

A

Hydrophobic, insoluble (not very polar)

Only very small lipids or lipids attached to proteins or sugars can dissolve in water.

91
Q

What are the five types of lipids?

A
  1. Fatty acids
  2. Triglycerides
  3. Phospholipids
  4. Steroids
  5. Eicosanoids
92
Q

Fatty acids

A

Simplest fats. Monomers.
Consists of a carboxyl group and a hydrocarbon chain.
Can be catabolized to form ATP

93
Q

Saturated fat

A

When a fatty acid has only a single covalent bond between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain

Meats, dairy products, coconut and palm oil.

94
Q

Unsaturated fats

A

If there is one or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms of hydrocarbon chain

Creates a kink.

95
Q

Monounsaturated fats

A

Only one double covalent bond between the fatty acids of the carbon chain.

Olive, peanut, canola and most nut oils.

96
Q

Polyunsaturated fats

A

Multiple double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain. Kinkiest!

Corn, soybean, sunflower and some fish oils.

97
Q

Triglyceride

A

Composed of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains.

98
Q

Phospholipids

A

Contains phosphorus
Major component of cellular membranes
Amphipathic (polar head, non polar tails)
When working together to form a membrane, allow non-polar molecules to pass easily (but not polar).

99
Q

Steroids

A

Consists of 4 rings of carbon
Include sterols: (which also have at least one hydroxyl) group.
Cholesterol (precursor to Vit D and hormones)
Hormones
Bile salt
Vitamin D

100
Q

Eicosanoids

A

Lipids derived from a 20 carbon fatty acid

Include:

1) prostaglandins (inflammatory response)
2) leukotrienes (allergy and inflammatory)
3) beta carotene (precursor to Vit A)
4) Vit E
5) Vit K

101
Q

What are the six functions of proteins?

A

1) structural
2) regulatory
3) contractile
4) immunological
5) transport
6) catalytic

102
Q

What are the monomers of proteins?

A

Amino acids

103
Q

Amino acids

A

Contain carboxyl group (acid), an amine group (base) and a side chain. COOH-NH2-R

20 altogether (essential and non-essential)

104
Q

Protein synthesis

A

The creation of proteins by creating peptide bonds between amino acids via dehydration synthesis.

Bond occurs between the N and the C

2 amino acids = dipeptide bond; 3 amino acids = tripeptide bond; lots of amino acids = polypeptide

105
Q

Primary structure of proteins

A

unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Genetically determined.

106
Q

Secondary structure of proteins

A

Repeated twisting of polypeptide chain into either an:

1) alpha helix; or
2) beta sheet

107
Q

Tertiary structure of proteins

A

The secondary structure folds in upon itself to create a 3-D structure

108
Q

Quaternary structure

A

Arrangement of 2 or more tertiary structures

109
Q

Denaturing

A

When a protein is destroyed/altered

110
Q

Enzyme

A

A protein which acts as a catalyst in biochemical reactions. Reduces activation energy

Composed of an protein portion (apoenzyme) and a nonprotein portion (cofactor)

Enzymes are:

1) Highly specific
2) Efficient
3) Subject to cellular control

111
Q

Nucleic acids

A

DNA and RNA

Found originally in the nucleus of the cell

Composed of

1) nitrogenous base
- adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil
2) pentose sugar (5-carbon sugar)
3) phosphate group PO4

112
Q

DNA

A

deoxyribose nucleic acid

double helix

Purines: adenine and guanine
Pyrimidines: thymine and cytosine

113
Q

RNA

A

ribonucleic acid

involved in protein synthesis

single stranded structure

Purines: adenine and guanine
Pyrimidines: URACIL and cytosine

114
Q

Three types of RNA

A
  1. mRNA (messenger) – transcribes original DNA
  2. tRNA (transport) – involved in amino acid translation
  3. rRNA (ribosomal) – forms template for amino acid translation
115
Q

ATP

A

Adenine triphosphate

Energy currency of the body

Consists of one adenine, 1 ribose, and a group of phosphates.

ATP + H2O -> ADP + energy + PO4 [uses ATPase]

in reverse, uses ATP-synthase

ADP + energy + PO4 –> ATP + H2O

Anatomy & Physiology 200 (7 decks)

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