Chem/Phys Equations and Techniques Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Translational motion

Answer

A

∆x = v_ot + 1/2at²

(V_ƒ)² = (V_o)² + 2ad

V_ƒ = V_o + at

Question 2

Q

Frictional force

Answer

A

f_max = μ Ν

N= normal force
u= coefficient of friction

μ_k < μ_s always

Question 3

Q

Uniform circular motion

Answer

A

F_c = ma_c = mv² /r

a_c= v² /r

Question 4

Q

Momentum, Impulse

Answer

A

I = F Δt = ΔM

applied force x time

M = mv

mass x velocity

Impulse is the change of momentum of an object when the object is acted upon by a force for an interval of time. So, with impulse, you can calculate the change in momentum, or you can use impulse to calculate the average impact force of a collision. A longer collision or impact time translates to a smaller force.

Question 5

Q

Work

Answer

A

W = F d cosθ

W = ∆KE

W = -P∆V

Joules

Question 6

Q

Energy (conservation)

Answer

A

E_T = E_k + E_p

Question 7

Q

Spring Force, Work

Answer

A

F = -kx

W = kx² /2

Question 8

Q

Current, Resistivity, Resistance

Answer

A

I = Q/t

Current = quantity of charge / time

R = ρL/A

resistivity = p (resistivity of wire) x Length of wire / cross sectional area of wire

V = IR

Voltage = current x resistance

Question 9

Q

Resistors (series)

Answer

A

Req = R1 + R2 . . .

Question 10

Q

Resistors (parallel)

Answer

A

1/ Rtot = 1/ R₁ + 1/ R₂

Question 11

Q

Capacitors in Ser.

Answer

A

1/ Ceq = 1/ C₁ + 1/ C₂ + 1/ C₃

Question 12

Q

Capacitors in parallel

Answer

A

Ceq = C1 + C2 . .

Question 13

Q

Sound

Answer

A

dB = 10 log₁₀ (I/I₀)

I = intensity
Io = minimum threshold of human hearing

beats = Δ ƒ

Question 14

Q

Thermodynamics and changing phases

Answer

A

Q = mc Δ T (MCAT)

c= specific heat
- The specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to change the temperature of 1.00 kg of mass by 1.00ºC.

Q = mL

m= mass
L = specific latent heat
- the amount of energy required to change the state of 1 kilogram (kg) of a material without changing its temperature. … latent heat of vaporisation - the amount of energy needed to boil or condense the material at its boiling point.

Question 15

Q

Coulomb’s Law:

Answer

A

F = k∙(q₁q₂/r²)

This law quantifies the force between two electrically charges particles. The electrical force (F) of repulsion or attraction between the particles is proportional to the product of the charges (q) and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them (r2). In this equation, k is Coulomb’s constant.

Question 16

Q

Kinetic and potential energy

Answer

A

Ek = 1/2 mv2

Ep = mgh

Question 17

Q

Ρressure

Pressure under water

Answer

A

P = F/A

ΔΡ = ρgΔh

p = fluid density

Question 18

Q

Specific Gravity

Answer

A

SG = ρ substance / ρ water (relative density)

ρ of water= 1 g/cm3 = 10³ kg/m³

Question 19

Q

Density

Buoyant force

Answer

A

ρ = mass / volume

F_b = ρgV

density of the fluid, gravity, volume of the object

If an object has a specific gravity of .92 (like ice), 92% of the object will be submerged in water

Question 20

Q

Optics power and magnification, total magnification

Answer

A

Power = 1/ i + 1/ o = 1/ f = 2/r

f = focal length
the power of a converging lens is positive and that of the diverging lens is negative.

M = magnification = - i/o

image/object

m_total= m₁ x m₂….

Question 21

Q

Gibbs Free Energy (standard and nonstandard)

Gas constant R=

Answer

A

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

if H is positive and S is negative, ∆G always positive
if H is negative and S is positive, ∆G always negative (spontaneous)

ΔG° = -RTln Keq

R = 8.3145 J/(mol x K)

Question 22

Q

Dopplers effect

Answer

A

Higher frequency when coming towards you, lower when going away

f_o = observed

v = speed of sound waves

v_o = observer velocity

v_s = source velocity

f_s = actual frequency of sound waves

Question 23

Q

Bernouilli’s Equation

Answer

A

Bernoulli’s principle: Within a horizontal flow of fluid, points of higher fluid speed will have less pressure than points of slower fluid speed.

P₁+ 1/2ρv₁²+ ρgh₁= P₂ + 1/2ρv₂²+ ρgh₂

This equation allows you to analyze a fluid as it moves through a tube and relates the velocity of the fluid to its pressure. For a horizontal tube that changes in diameter, regions where the fluid is moving fast will be under less pressure than regions where the fluid is moving slow. Bernoulli’s equation applies principles of energy conservation to a flowing fluid. In this equation, P is the hydrostatic pressure, ρ is the density of the liquid, v is the velocity, g is gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2), and h is the height of the liquid in meters.

Question 24

Q

parallel plate capacitor equation

Electric field equation

Answer

A

C = ε(A/d)

E = V/d

Voltage = electric field x displacement

Question 25

Q

Capacitor work

Answer

A

W = 1/2 CV²

capactitance
V = potential difference, voltage

Question 26

Q

Physics math

Radians to degrees

root 3, root 2

area of circle, circumference

Answer

A

Angle θ may be given in radians (R) where 1 revolution = 2πR = 360°

Estimate square root 3 as 1.7 and root 2 as 1.4

Cross-sectional area of a tube = area of a circle = πr² where π can be estimated as 3.14 and r is the radius of the circle; circumference = 2πr

Question 27

Q

Units to memorize

Answer

A

Both work and energy are measured in joules where 1 joule (J) = 1 N × 1 m . {Imperial units: the foot-pound , CGS units: the dyne-centimeter or erg }

The SI unit for power is the watt (W) which equals one joule per second (J/s) = volts × amperes.

Current is measured in amperes = coulombs/sec. The units of resistance are ohms, symbolized by Ω (omega), where 1 ohm = 1 volt/ampere.

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ). Other units are: 1.00 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa = 1.01 bar = 760 mmHg = 760 torr.

The SI unit for the magnetic induction vector B is the tesla where 1 T = 1 N/(A)(m) = 104 gauss.

Question 28

Q

Boyle’s Law:

Pressure and volume

Answer

A

PV = constant,

P₁V₁ = P₂V₂

Question 29

Q

Avogadro’s Law:

Answer

A

V₁/n₁ = V₂/n₂

Question 30

Q

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures:

Answer

A

P_Total = P₁ + P₂ …

Question 31

Q

Photon Energy:

Planck’s constant

Answer

A

E = hf

E= hc/ λ

Planck’s constant = 6.62607015 × 10⁻³⁴

Question 32

Q

Snell’s Law:

Answer

A

n₁sinθ₁ = n₂sinθ₂

Snell’s Law describes the change in direction of a light ray as it moves from a medium with one refractive index (n1) to another medium with a different refractive index (n2). The angle (sinθ1) of incidence towards the surface and the angle (sinθ2) of refraction are measured relative to a surface normal.

Question 33

Q

Lens Equation:

Answer

A

1/f = 1/o + 1/i

for a convex lens the focal length will always be positive

for a concave lens the focal length will always be negative.

Question 34

Q

Van der Waals equation (real gases)

What do a and b mean?

Answer

A

P = RT/(V-b) - a/V²

^{V = molar volume}

The a and b are called van der Waals constants: The constant a provides a measure of the average attraction of the molecules, whereas constant b adjusts for the volume occupied by the gas particles

Question 35

Q

Graham’s rate of effusion of gases

Question 36

Q

Quantum numbers

Question 37

Q

Electronic configuration rules

Question 38

Q

Solutions equations

molarity

molality

mole fraction

mass percent

ppm

Question 39

Q

Freezing point depression

Answer

A

m = molality = moles solute/ kg solvent

k = constant

Question 40

Q

Boiling point elevation

Question 41

Q

Osmotic pressure

Answer

A

πV = nRT

Question 42

Q

Phase diagram for water

Answer

A

It has a negative slope due to the fact that when ice melt, the molar volume decreases. Ice actually melt at lower temperature at higher pressure.

Question 43

Q

Large Keq

Answer

A

Indicate reaction has almost gone to completion

Question 44

Q

Buffer solution equation

(for pOH)

Answer

A

pOH = pKb + log [HB]/[[B]

Question 45

Q

pH equations

Answer

A

pH = -log[H+] pOH = -log[OH]

pKa = -log[Ka] pKb = -log[Kb]

pH + pOH = 14 pKa + pKb = 14

Ka x Kb = Kw = [OH][H+] = 10^-14 (at 298K)

Question 46

Q

1st law of thermodynamics

Answer

A

Conservation of energy: energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed or moved

In Closed Systems:

∆U = Q - W

change in internal energy = heat transfer into system - work performed by the system

if system performs work, loses energy to environment

positive value if work is done on the system

Doesn’t apply in open systems

Question 47

Q

Standard temp and pressure vs standard conditions

Question 48

Q

Arrhenius acid and base

Question 49

Q

Lewis acid and base

Question 50

Q

Bronsted Lowry acid and base

Question 51

Q

Rate determining step

Answer

A

Slowest elementary step in reaction

First step is rate determining

Question 52

Q

Pascal’s Law

Force and area

Answer

A

F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂

Question 53

Q

Molar heat of solution, vaporization, fusion

Question 54

Q

Total entropy change

Answer

A

+ entropy change is increase in disorder

All spontaneous change occurs with an increase in entropy of the universe. The sum of the entropy change for the system and the surrounding must be positive(+) for a spontaneous process.

Question 55

Q

Cell potential

Answer

A

key difference between electrode potential and cell potential is that electrode potential refers to the ability of an electrode in a cell to get reduced or oxidized whereas cell potential is the difference between the electrode potentials of the electrodes present in an electrochemical cell.

Question 56

Q

Anode

Answer

A

Electrode where oxidation occurs, half reaction with more negative reduction potential

Question 57

Q

Cathode

Answer

A

Electrode where reduction occurs, more positive half reaction reduction potential

Question 58

Q

Le Chateliers Principle

Question 59

Q

Pressure

Pressure of a liquid

Answer

A

F/A

density x mass x height

Question 60

Q

Linear and volumetric expansion

Question 61

Q

Center of mass

Question 62

Q

1 Joule =

Question 63

Q

Torque

Question 64

Q

When to use Joules, Watts, Newtons

Answer

A

Newtons is force

Joules is work (N x m), kinetic and potential energy

Power is watts (J/s)

Answer 50

A

F = 1/T (Hz)

Period (T) is number of seconds per cycle; inverse of frequency

v = wavelength x frequency

c = fλ

Answer 51

A

F = qvBsin0

Answer 52

A

PRODUCTS OVER REACTANTS (excluding water)

Answer 53

A

Km is the concentration of substrate which permits the enzyme to achieve half Vmax. An enzyme with a high Km has a low affinity for its substrate, and requires a greater concentration of substrate to achieve Vmax.

Vmax is the maximum rate that can be observed in the reaction

Answer 54

A

C= q/V

charge over voltage

C = εA/d

area of plates over length

E = 1/2 * C * V² (also work eq)

Answer 55

A

P = W/t

P = Fv

P = I²R

Watts = J/s

Answer 56

A

Focal point is positive for convex lens, negative for concave lens

Answer 57

A

If a liquid is exposed to air, some will evaporate into a gas until gas and liquid phases reach equilibrium; increases with temp

pressure exerted by gas above liquid is vapor pressure
Adding solute to liquid reduces amount of gas produced
attraction between solvent and solute particles
surface composed of solvent and solute, less surface area for solvent to evaporate
solutes must be nonvolatile (don’t evaporate readily)

P = XaPa

Vapor pressure in soln = mole fraction x vapor pressure of pure solvent

Answer 58

A

Using a mechanical apparatus to perform work using less force

inclined plane, pulley, seesaw

for ramps, incline length /incline height gives the amount of force increased by just going vertically

Winput = Woutput

Increasing distance decreases force put in, increases force put out

**Levers can have a mechanical advantage less than one, inclined planes cannot

Answer 59

A

1st harmonic: Standing wave on a string with only one antinode is lowest frequency

wavelength is twice the length of string (1 wavelength is two antinodes)

2nd harmonic: two antinodes, wavelength = length of string

3rd harmonic: 3 antinodes, 1.5 wavelengths

λ = 2L / N

**antinode is at peaks

Answer 60

A

Binds to enzyme active site, inhibits binding of substrate (“competes with substrate”)

Increases Km (amount of substrate needed to reach Vmax)

No change on Vmax

Answer 61

A

Binds at enzyme substrate complex, inhibits binding of substrate

Decreases Km

Decreases Vmax

Answer 62

A

Binds at enzyme substrate complex or just enzyme

Increase or decrease Km

Decrease Vmax

Answer 63

A

Binds at ES complex or enzyme

Doesn’t inhibit binding of substrate, “noncompetitive”

No change for Km

Decrease Vmax

Answer 64

A

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ). Other units are:

1.00 atm = 1.01 × 10⁵ Pa = 1.01 bar = 760 mmHg = 760 torr.

Answer 65

A

Actual/theoretical x 100

Actual -Theoretical /Theoretical x 100

Answer 66

A

is the equilibrium constant for a solid substance dissolving in an aqueous solution.

Answer 67

A

quantitative measure of inertia, a fundamental property of all matter. It is, in effect, the resistance that a body of matter offers to a change in its speed or position upon the application of a force

weight = mg

m = density x volume

F = ma

Answer 68

A

KEparticle = 1/2 mparticle vrms2

root mean square velocity = √ 3RT / Mm

R = Ideal gas constant

Mm = molar mass

T = temp (kelvin)

Temp and KE related

Answer 69

A

When an acid is neutralized, all of the protons from the original acid have reacted with hyroxide ions from added base

ratio of acid to base is 1:1 in moles
Monoprotic acid contains only one acidic proton
Monoprotic base can only accept one proton

MaVa = MbVb —> for monoprotic acids

Molarity and volume of acid and base

For diprotic and triprotic acids, have to use normality (moles solute/kg/solvent)

Answer 70

A

∆G = ∆H - T∆S

Answer 71

A

Solid product placed in liquid solvent and heated to dissolve
Mixture cooled again and solid allowed to reform
* typically excludes many impurities present before

Ideal solvent is one in which desired product is soluble at high temperature, relatively insoluble in low temp (methanol)

Often repeated many times over

Answer 72

A

For heating curves, temp increases until reaches value the bonds become broken and thats where phase change occurs

∆Hf = enthalpy of fusion =

how much heat is needed to melt one mole of substance (kJ/mol) = Q/m (kJ/kg)
- 334 kJ/kg for water (energy required to melt 1 kg of ice)

∆Hvap= enthalpy of vaporization=

If we’re melting a block of ice into gas, have to conside q=mc∆T + n∆Hvap + n∆Hf

**Phase change: n comes from grams of original substance times mol/g
- multiply this by ∆Hfusion/∆Hvap

Answer 73

A

Tendencies for atoms to be reduced in any redox reduction half reaction (E°)
- measured in volts, relative to each other

the more positive an E° is, the more spontaneous the reduction

the more negative, the more nonspontaneous the reduction

**Any half reaction can be reversed to form the oxidation half rxn, reaction that is more spontaneous ISN’T reversed
- also reverse sign of E°

add two potentials for standard potential of full rxn

*Don’t need to balance eqn, not affected by stoichiometric constants

Answer 74

A

ee = observed opitcal rotation/specific optical rotation x 100

Answer 75

A

Uses magnetism to determine mass

First step is ionization using an electron beam
- creates ions and can break apart molecules

parent ion: ion created by loss of just one electron and no fragmentation (M+)

maintains parent molecular weight but is charged

Accelerate into magnetic field and uses Fb = Bqvsin0 to determine the angle of deflection

separated by mass to charge ratio
y axis is relative abundance, x axis is m/z

*** M+ is the peak furthest to the right and thats how you determine the molecular mass

Answer 76

A

Flow rate = ∆pressure_drop x radius / length

large pressure drop causes flow rate to increase

increasing radius dramatically increases flow rate

increase in length of tubing decreases flow rate

***FLOW RATE IS VOLUME of water

Venturi Effect: The narrower the tube, the lower the pressure

Answer 77

A

Dissipate energy, path dependent

friction, air resistance, viscosity

F = mg

Gm₁m₂ / r²

Gravitational force between two masses

Answer 78

A

Gm₁m₂/ r²

r = distance between them

Answer 79

A

Can either accept or donate a proton (acid and base)

water, amino acids

Answer 80

A

the keq value is Ka, also known as acidity constant, which measures the strength of an acid in solution

Answer 81

A

Only force acting on object is gravity; no horizontal acceleration, force stopped acting on object when enters arc

Movment in x and y direction function independently
**Time is connector between x and y components
Projectile has some initial vertical velocity

v_x = v_icosθ d_x = v_xt

v_y = v_isinθ + gt v_y = 0 at top of curve

then use kinematic eqns v_f² = v_i² + 2ad_y

v_f = v_i + at

∆d = v_it + .5at²

Answer 82

A

The amount of energy required to raise the temp of 1 gram of water by 1 deg C

Answer 83

A

In all chromatography, two phases:

Mobile phase: moving fluid or gas

Stationary phase: immobile substance that retains some molecules moving through the mobile phase

Solutes travelling at different speeds based on affinity for mobile and stationary phases

Answer 84

A

Magnetic F_b = qvBsin0

Electric F= -k Q₁Q₂ / d², ends up being F = kq/d²

COULOMBS LAW
negative cancels with negative charge

Answer 85

A

F=Eq

W = q∆V

Answer 86

A

Frequency

Answer 87

A

Q = vA

v = velocity

A = area ( look for units²)

Answer 88

A

Ksp = [A+]^a[B-]^b

A= cation

B = anion

Answer 89

A

ΔG = –RTln(Keq)

Keq is > 1

Answer 90

A

Takes advantage of two liquid phases: polar aqueous phase (usually water) and relatively nonpolar organic phase (organic solvent, immiscible with water (don’t mix))

liquid half in separatory funnel, denser liquid at the bottom

Like dissolves like, shaking the funnel separates them into polar and nonpolar solutes

**If compound is uncharged and has both polar and nonpolar groups, non polar groups win
by using acid base properties, you can add protons to create polarity

Can separate two different acids if they have very different pKa’s

Answer 91

A

Separates liquid by their boiling point using votality and vapor pressure

vapor pressure: pressure exerted by liquid molecules
Round bottom flask with mixture is heated
Liquid becomes gas and rises up to a condensor
Cold water around condensor changes gas back to liquid

Doesn’t always separate perfectly –> REPEAT DISTILLATIONS

Fractional:

Uses fractional distillation to separate liquids with close boiling points

1. Increases vertical distance that vapor travels

Allows vapor to recondense and revaporize repeatedly

Answer 92

A

Can be used to detect impurities in a sample

Stationary phase: glass or plastic plate coated with a thin layer of absorbent material like silica gel (HIGHLY POLAR)

Mobile phase: nonpolar solvent such as hexane, referred to as “eluent”

Spots are placed at bottom of stationary phase plate and just above mobile phase solvent

2. Capillary action pulls mobile phase up the plate, compounds in the sample will also travel upward

Nonpolar particles travel further than polar (have higher affinity for plate and don’t want to move)

Allows us to make rough measurements of polarity of compounds using Retention Factor (Rf) = distance travelled by compound/distance travelled by solvent

nonpolar compounds have higher Rf typically

Answer 93

A

1. size exclusion: separate components based on physical size

stationary phase has pore studded beads, larger molecules pass through faster (OPPOSITE of what we’d think)

2. cation exchange: traps positive molecules, negatively charged stationary phase

3. anion exchange: opposite

affinity: ligands designed to bind to molecule of interest are attached to stationary phase
* once solution has passed through, dissociate bound compound of interest

5. gas-liquid: gas mobile phase and sample, liquid is stationary phase

time spent in compound depends on volatility and affinity
smaller compounds have earlier peaks when analyzed

Answer 94

A

Nucleation

Nucleus or tiny seed crystal initiates crystallization

Scratch side of glass

Answer 95

A

Analysis of molecules based on interaction with electromagnetic radiation

IR:

Uses infrared radiation and molecule interactions ***different bonds have distinct ways of interacting with IR radiation

** must be a dipole present, usually polar covalent bonds

vibrational frequencies: even those with dipole present, requires specific frequency of IR radiation to stretch or bend

x-axis: different wavelengths of IR radiation

y-axis: transmittance (low transmittance means high absorption)

Answer 96

A

Low frequency (below 2000)

*** Carbonyl at 1650, SHARP PEAK

Medium frequency (low 2000s)

3100-3500 BROAD AND WIDE

3300-3500

Answer 97

A

Colored compounds absorb some wavelengths of light and reflect others; we perceive an object to have color of the wavelength it reflects

UV/Vis spectroscopy is basically identifying compounds based on their color

Answer 98

A

Characterizing a molecules atoms (unlike IR which characterizes bonds) by how they interact with magnetic field

either spin with field at lower energy or against it

1HNMR and 13CNMR

upfield: to the right, shielding

downfield: to the left, deshielding

Location on graph depends on shielding and deshielding of nucleus; carboxylic acids and electronegative atoms are deshielding and to the left on graph

use n+1 for number of hydrogens on carbons adjacent to the target carbon
- this equates to its number of peaks on graph

Answer 99

A

Charged macromolecules like DNA or protein are suspended in agarose gel and migrate due to application of electric current (like electrolytic cells)

Separates by size or charge

Cathode: negative charge
Anode: positive charge

DNA negative phosphate groups move towards anode

***Can isolate to just size by negating charge of proteins using SDS (anionic detergent) which UNFOLDS and makes neutral charge

requires reducing agent to fully denature quaternary/tertiary structure

Answer 100

A

ssDNA or RNA to bond with cDNA or cRNA

Used to anneal DNA strands and artificially replicate DNA

Answer 101

A

Repeated cycles of DNA sequencing that doubles them each time

Can also amplify RNA if it is reverse transcribed

Primers specific to target sequence

Reaction heated to 95 deg C to denature two strands of DNA
Cooled to allow primers to anneal to template strands
Heated again to initiate synthesis by DNA polymerase = Taq polymerase

Heating and cooling done by thermocyclers

Answer 102

A

Extract by lysing cellular membranes either by freezing and thawing, solvents, detergents

often treated with protease inhibitors to keep lysed proteins from degrading other cells
cooled and pH maintained

Separation by centrifugation

pellet: heavy dense particles
supernatant: proteins usually stay in solution
or by solubility: changing salt concentrations of surroundings

Use chromatography to isolate desired protein

Answer 103

A

Temp and resistance increase linearly

Answer 104

A

Best primers for PCR have a high GC content and CG bases in 5′ and 3′

Answer 105

A

Red litmus paper is a base indicator. It turns blue at 8.1 pH and higher. While not a measure of pH levels, it’s a quick and accurate way to determine if a solution is alkaline

Answer 106

A

The color arises because nickel(II) ion has partially filled d orbitals and the electrons in the lower energy d orbitals absorb visible light to move to the higher energy d orbitals.

Answer 107

A

the number of photons, and the intensity of electromagnetic radiation is defined as energy emitted per unit time. Thus, intensity is directly proportional to the number of photons emitted

Answer 108

A

v_i = 0

a = g

d = y

d = v_it + 1/2gt² or v_f² = v_i²+ 2gy

Answer 109

A

Gives food its distinctive brown color when burned; occurs between 140 and 160 deg C

Amino acids in foods react with certain carbohydrates
happens faster under basic conditions, amino groups deprotonated

At very high temps, carcinogen acrylamide can form if the food is charged

Reducing sugars act as reducing agents with amino acids

All monosaccharides

any sugar with free aldehyde and non-aldose sugars that can be converted to an aldose (fructose)

due to keto-enol tautamerism
disaccharides and polysaccharides with free anomeric carbons

Cu2+, Ag+, Fe3+ detect reducing sugar presence in reactions

Answer 110

A

Testing for reducing sugars; Diagnosis of diabetes; diabetics have abnormally high blood glucose from not producing enough insulin or cells not responding to it

excess glucose ends up in urine

Tollen’s Test: Silver ions used to oxidize an aldose (reducing sugar) which produces solid silver

Benedicts Test: Similar reaction with Cu2+ instead; begins with bright blue color and turns into red

Answer 111

A

Utilizes carefully picked antibodies to detect a substance of interest

Answer 112

A

If wave travels from one medium into another

changes speed of waves and bends the light
Light only refracts when it hits medium at an angle
Dispersal of light: light with a longer wavelength (like red light) doesn’t change speed or bend as much as that with a shorter wavelength when passing into a new medium

n = c / v

c = speed of light in a vacuum
v = light speed in medium
n is always greater than 1; n_airis pretty much 1

Answer 113

A

Valence electrons of atom - bonds - nonbonded electrons

Answer 114

A

Single displacement - free elements have oxidation state of 0, can change when bonded in a compound

Combustion- hydrocarbon + oxygen = CO2 + water

Combination- A + B –> AB

Answer 115

A

Two or more nuclei are forced together by extremely high levels of energy(like the sun), causing them to merge into new larger nucleus

releases a lot of energy due to dissipation of binding energy of larger nucleus

produces a neutron

Answer 116

A

Large nucleus split into 2 or more nuclei

no nuclear particles lost

Answer 117

A

Light shone on a metal surface causes electrons to be emitted from the metal

E_kinetic = hf - Φ

net energy, the energy of the emitted photon minus the energy needed to remove the electron.

Answer 118

A

Pressure of a liquid on an object as well as atmospheric pressure above it

P_absolute= P_atmospheric + P_hydrostatic

*atmospheric pressure is higher at lower altitude

Answer 119

A

**at the interface between air and water at the surface, the water molecules forces act unevenly on the ones at the surface and has no interactions with the air molecules

this imbalance of forces creates tension

Surface tension = Force / Length (N/m)

Answer 120

A

Effect of intermolecular forces within a given substance causing them to stick together

Adhesion forces are molecules sticking to another type of molecule

if adhesive forces are stronger than surface tension forces, liquid will crawl up walls of container and surface is curved (concave)(meniscus)

if fluid acts more strongly with itself than walls of container, has a convex shape

Answer 121

A

Laminar Flow: flowing fluid composed of parallel layers that may be moving at different velocities

Turbulent flow: flowing fluid composed of mixed layers that vary in pressure and speed

the higher the velocity, the more likely the flow is to become turbulent

Answer 122

A

1st harmonic: Standing wave on a string with only one antinode is lowest frequency

wavelength is twice the length of string (1 wavelength is two antinodes)

2nd harmonic: two antinodes, wavelength = length of string

3rd harmonic: 3 antinodes, 1.5 wavelengths

λ = 2L / N

for 3rd harmonic, N= 3
L = length of string

Answer 123

A

Mass defect is the difference between the predicted mass and the actual mass of an atom’s nucleus. The binding energy of a system can appear as extra mass, which accounts for this difference.

Answer 124

A

Groups with electron pairs to donate

The oxygen anion, -O^-

Alcohol groups, -OH

Amine groups, -NH2 or -NR2

Ethers, -OR

Alkyl groups are also weakly electron-donating.

Answer 125

A

EWGs make electrophiles stronger, because the electron-withdrawing effect makes any carbon center even more electron deficient than before.

EWGs make any nucleophilic species less reactive, for the same reason as they strengthen electrophiles. Nucleophiles need electron density to react with electrophiles

Nitro groups (-NO₂)

Aldehydes (-CHO)

Ketones (-C=OR)

Cyano groups (-CN)

Carboxylic acid (-COOH)

Esters (-COOR)

Answer 126

A

any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent. In an alkaline solution, a reducing sugar forms some aldehyde or ketone, which allows it to act as a reducing agent, for example in Benedict’s reagent

Answer 127

A

Watts: J / s

Coulomb: Apmere x sec (Ampere = current)

Pascal: N / m²

Volts: W / Ampere

Ohms: V / Ampere

Answer 128

A

10¹²

10⁹

10⁶

10^-1

10^-2

10^-6

10^-9

Answer 129

A

derived from benzenes

Answer 130

A

a portion of a larger whole, especially a sample taken for chemical analysis or other treatment.

Answer 131

A

any of a class of compounds which are fatty acid esters of glycerol phosphate with a nitrogen base linked to the phosphate group.

Answer 132

A

color to appear in organic compounds.

Electron delocalization

Answer 133

A

∆Suniverse ≥ 0

The entropy of a system will naturally increase over time

entropy (S) = energy not available to do work

If two objects are in contact but not thermal equilibrium, heat energy will spontaneously go from higher to lower temp

∆S = Q/T

Entropy can decrease but it requires input of energy, however entropy of surroundings increase more so entropy of universe increases

Answer 134

A

Heat capacity is the heat required to raise the temperature of an object by a certain unit of temperature.

Specific heat as the amount of heat required to raise one gram of an object by one degree Kelvin (or Celsius).

Answer 135

A

Isothermal processes: constant temperature and therefore ∆U = 0

Adiabatic processes: heat is not exchanged and Q = 0

Isovolumetric processes: the volume cannot change, work cannot be done, and therefore W = 0

Answer 136

A

technique that allows for the calculation of heat transfer associated with chemical or physical reactions using a tool called a calorimeter under specific constraints

For a bomb calorimeter, contains a reaction and a fluid with different variables which can exchange heat

use q_r=q_c

mc∆T (of reactants) = mc∆T (of products)

Answer 137

A

high temperatures, have lower energy, and are more stable.

However, their formation occurs more slowly because greater activation energy is required.

Answer 138

A

a lower temperature, have higher energy, and are less stable.

Their formation occurs more quickly because smaller activation energy is required.

Product B is kinetic, Product A is thermodynamic

Answer 139

A

rate-limiting or rate-determining step, since the velocity of the overall reaction is limited by the slowest step.

Answer 140

A

Temp and pressure

Answer 141

A

All salts in group 1 are soluble (Na, K, Li)

All nitrates salts soluble

Answer 142

A

Use priority to find is highest priority groups are on same or opposite sides of double bond

same = Z
different = E

Answer 143

A

1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg = 101 kPa

Answer 144

A

pH = pKa +/- 1

Answer 145

A

how the straight-line molecules cyclize.

alpha isomer: the -OH group linked to the anomeric carbon points opposite, or underneath, the in-ring oxygen.

beta isomers: can be identified when the -OH group is linked to the anomeric carbon points in the same direction as, or above, the in-ring oxygen.

Answer 146

A

unsaturation or heteroatoms replacing one or more carbon atoms of the ring.

Answer 147

A

category of organic compounds that is formally derived from carbamic acid (NH2COOH)

Answer 148

A

All substrates (A and B) must bind to active site to form ternary structure before enzyme can convert them to product

ordered: substrates bind to active site in specific order and products leave in specific order (ex. glycolysis)

random: binding order doesn’t matter

double-displacement (ping pong): first substrate binds and forms intermediate ES complex which converts it to first product, THEN next substrate binds and does the same

Answer 149

A

Having a velence of 2

Answer 150

A

proteins that are involved in redox reactions. Specifically, cytochrome P450 acts as a monooxygenase, catalyzing an oxidation reaction.

Answer 151

A

Removes hydrogen, binds to oxygen

Answer 152

A

Sucrose- table sugar; composed of glucose and fructose

Lactose- dairy products galactose and glucose

majority of world’s adults lack lactase, lactose intolerant
all mammals express lactase in childhood for breast milk but expression turns off
northern european and african heritages continue expression

Maltose- two glucose monomers; less sweet than sucrose

Answer 153

A

Heat transfer via movement of liquids

Answer 154

A

negative aminos and K+, outside of cell is rich in Ca2+, Na+, and Cl-

Answer 155

A

Low melting and boiling points, low polarity

ex. alkanes very volatile

think of the order of intermolecular bonds: ion-dipole, hydrogen bonding , dipole-dipole, london disperson

Answer 156

A

Number of equivalent weights x molarity

N₁V₁ = N₂V₂

Answer 157

A

moles solute / kg solvent

Answer 158

A

Native page analyzes size and 3D structure and charge

SDS page reduces folding and charge, just size

reducing vs. nonreducing (disulfide bonds): if divided into two additional sub units if they are held by disulfide bonds, then the reducing SDS PAGE would separate into 4 subunits whereas nonreducing SDS PAGE would reduce into just 2.

Answer 159

A

Reducing:

NaBH4 -weak

LiAlH4 strong

Oxidizing agents:

Na2Cr2O7 - sodium dichromate

CrO3 - chromium trioxide

PCC

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Chem/Phys Equations and Techniques Flashcards

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