Chem/Phys Equations and Techniques Flashcards

Question

Capacitor work

Answer 1

W = 1/2 CV² * capactitance * V = potential difference, voltage

Answer 2

Angle θ may be given in radians (R) where 1 revolution = 2πR = 360° Estimate square root 3 as 1.7 and root 2 as 1.4 Cross-sectional area of a tube = area of a circle = πr² where π can be estimated as 3.14 and r is the radius of the circle; circumference = 2πr

Answer 3

Both work and energy are measured in joules where 1 joule (J) = 1 N × 1 m . {Imperial units: the foot-pound , CGS units: the dyne-centimeter or erg } The SI unit for power is the watt (W) which equals one joule per second (J/s) = volts × amperes. Current is measured in amperes = coulombs/sec. The units of resistance are ohms, symbolized by Ω (omega), where 1 ohm = 1 volt/ampere. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ). Other units are: 1.00 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa = 1.01 bar = 760 mmHg = 760 torr. The SI unit for the magnetic induction vector B is the tesla where 1 T = 1 N/(A)(m) = 104 gauss.

Answer 4

PV = constant, P₁V₁ = P₂V₂

Answer 5

**V₁/n₁ = V₂/n₂**

Answer 6

P_Total = P₁ + P₂ …

Answer 7

E = hf E= hc/ λ Planck's constant = 6.62607015 × 10⁻³⁴

Answer 8

n₁sinθ₁ = n₂sinθ₂ Snell’s Law describes the change in direction of a light ray as it moves from a medium with one refractive index (n1) to another medium with a different refractive index (n2). The angle (sinθ1) of incidence towards the surface and the angle (sinθ2) of refraction are measured relative to a surface normal.

Answer 9

**1/f = 1/o + 1/i** **for a convex lens the focal length will always be positive** for a **concave lens the focal length will always be negative.**

Answer 10

P = RT/(V-b) - a/V² ^{V = molar volume} The a and b are called van der Waals constants: The constant a provides a measure of the average attraction of the molecules, whereas constant b adjusts for the volume occupied by the gas particles

Answer 11

m = molality = moles solute/ kg solvent k = constant

Answer 12

**πV = nRT**

Answer 13

It has a negative slope due to the fact that when ice melt, the molar volume decreases. Ice actually melt at lower temperature at higher pressure.

Answer 14

Indicate reaction has almost gone to completion

Answer 15

pOH = pKb + log [HB]/[[B]

Answer 16

pH = -log[H+] pOH = -log[OH] pKa = -log[Ka] pKb = -log[Kb] pH + pOH = 14 pKa + pKb = 14 Ka x Kb = Kw = [OH][H+] = 10^-14 (at 298K)

Answer 17

Conservation of energy: energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed or moved In Closed Systems: ∆U = Q - W change in internal energy = heat transfer into system - work performed by the system if system performs work, loses energy to environment positive value if work is done on the system Doesn't apply in open systems

Answer 18

Slowest elementary step in reaction First step is rate determining

Answer 19

F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂

Answer 20

+ entropy change is increase in disorder All spontaneous change occurs with an increase in entropy of the universe. The sum of the entropy change for the system and the surrounding must be positive(+) for a spontaneous process.

Answer 21

key difference between electrode potential and cell potential is that electrode potential refers to the ability of an electrode in a cell to get reduced or oxidized whereas cell potential is the difference between the electrode potentials of the electrodes present in an electrochemical cell.

Answer 22

Electrode where oxidation occurs, half reaction with more negative reduction potential

Answer 23

Electrode where reduction occurs, more positive half reaction reduction potential

Answer 24

**F/A** **density x mass x height**

Answer 25

Newtons is force Joules is work (N x m), kinetic and potential energy Power is watts (J/s)

Answer 26

F = 1/T (Hz) * Period (T) is number of seconds per cycle; inverse of frequency v = wavelength x frequency c = fλ

Answer 27

F = qvBsin0

Answer 28

PRODUCTS OVER REACTANTS (excluding water)

Answer 29

Km is the concentration of substrate which permits the enzyme to achieve half Vmax. An enzyme with a high Km has a low affinity for its substrate, and requires a greater concentration of substrate to achieve Vmax. Vmax is the maximum rate that can be observed in the reaction

Answer 30

**C= q/V** * charge over voltage **C = εA/d** * area of plates over length **E = 1/2 \* C \* V² (also work eq)**

Answer 31

P = W/t P = Fv P = I²R **Watts = J/s**

Answer 32

Focal point is positive for convex lens, negative for concave lens

Answer 33

If a liquid is exposed to air, some will evaporate into a gas until gas and liquid phases reach equilibrium; increases with temp * pressure exerted by gas above liquid is vapor pressure * Adding solute to liquid reduces amount of gas produced * attraction between solvent and solute particles * surface composed of solvent and solute, less surface area for solvent to evaporate * solutes must be nonvolatile (don't evaporate readily) **P = XaPa** Vapor pressure in soln = mole fraction x vapor pressure of pure solvent

Answer 34

Using a mechanical apparatus to perform work using less force * inclined plane, pulley, seesaw for ramps, incline length /incline height gives the amount of force increased by just going vertically **Winput = Woutput** * Increasing distance decreases force put in, increases force put out \*\*Levers can have a mechanical advantage less than one, inclined planes cannot

Answer 35

**1st harmonic:** Standing wave on a string with only one antinode is lowest frequency wavelength is twice the length of string (1 wavelength is two antinodes) **2nd harmonic**: two antinodes, wavelength = length of string **3rd harmonic:** 3 antinodes, 1.5 wavelengths * **λ = 2L / N** **\*\*antinode** is at peaks

Answer 36

Binds to enzyme active site, inhibits binding of substrate ("competes with substrate") Increases Km (amount of substrate needed to reach Vmax) No change on Vmax

Answer 37

Binds at enzyme substrate complex, inhibits binding of substrate Decreases Km Decreases Vmax

Answer 38

Binds at enzyme substrate complex or just enzyme Increase or decrease Km Decrease Vmax

Answer 39

Binds at ES complex or enzyme Doesn't inhibit binding of substrate, "noncompetitive" No change for Km Decrease Vmax

Answer 40

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ). Other units are: 1.00 atm = 1.01 × 10⁵ Pa = 1.01 bar = 760 mmHg = 760 torr.

Answer 41

Actual/theoretical x 100 Actual -Theoretical /Theoretical x 100

Answer 42

is the equilibrium constant for a solid substance dissolving in an aqueous solution.

Answer 43

quantitative measure of inertia, a fundamental property of all matter. It is, in effect, the resistance that a body of matter offers to a change in its speed or position upon the application of a force weight = mg m = density x volume F = ma

Answer 44

KEparticle = 1/2 mparticle vrms2 root mean square velocity = √ 3RT / Mm R = Ideal gas constant Mm = molar mass T = temp (kelvin) Temp and KE related

Answer 45

When an acid is neutralized, all of the protons from the original acid have reacted with hyroxide ions from added base * ratio of acid to base is 1:1 in moles * Monoprotic acid contains only one acidic proton * Monoprotic base can only accept one proton **MaVa = MbVb** ---\> for monoprotic acids Molarity and volume of acid and base For diprotic and triprotic acids, have to use **normality (moles solute/kg/solvent)**

Answer 46

∆G = ∆H - T∆S

Answer 47

1. Solid product placed in liquid solvent and heated to dissolve 2. Mixture cooled again and solid allowed to reform * typically excludes many impurities present before **Ideal solvent** is one in which desired product is soluble at high temperature, relatively insoluble in low temp (methanol) Often repeated many times over

Answer 48

For heating curves, temp increases until reaches value the bonds become broken and thats where phase change occurs **∆Hf = enthalpy of fusion =** * _how much heat is needed to melt one mole of substance_ (kJ/mol) = Q/m (kJ/kg) * 334 kJ/kg for water (energy required to melt 1 kg of ice) **∆Hvap= enthalpy of vaporization**= If we're melting a block of ice into gas, have to conside **q=mc∆T** + n∆Hvap + n∆Hf * \*\***Phase change:** n comes from grams of original substance times mol/g * multiply this by ∆Hfusion/∆Hvap

Answer 49

* Tendencies for atoms to be reduced in any redox reduction half reaction (E°) * measured in volts, relative to each other the more positive an E° is, the more spontaneous the reduction the more negative, the more nonspontaneous the reduction * \*\*Any half reaction can be reversed to form the oxidation half rxn, reaction that is more spontaneous ISN’T reversed * also reverse sign of E° add two potentials for standard potential of full rxn \*Don't need to balance eqn, not affected by stoichiometric constants

Answer 50

ee = observed opitcal rotation/specific optical rotation x 100

Answer 51

Uses magnetism to determine mass * First step is ionization using an electron beam * creates ions and can break apart molecules **parent ion:** ion created by loss of just one electron and no fragmentation (M+) * maintains parent molecular weight but is charged Accelerate into magnetic field and uses Fb = Bqvsin0 to determine the angle of deflection * separated by mass to charge ratio * y axis is relative abundance, x axis is m/z **\*\*\* M+ i**s the peak furthest to the right and thats how you determine the **molecular mass**

Answer 52

Flow rate = ∆pressure_drop x radius / length **large pressure _drop_ causes flow rate to increase** **increasing radius dramatically increases flow rate** increase in length of tubing decreases flow rate \*\*\*FLOW RATE IS VOLUME of water Venturi Effect: The narrower the tube, the lower the pressure

Answer 53

Dissipate energy, path dependent * friction, air resistance, viscosity **F = mg** **Gm₁m₂ / r²** Gravitational force between two masses

Answer 54

Gm₁m₂/ r² r = distance between them

Answer 55

Can either accept or donate a proton (acid and base) water, amino acids

Answer 56

the keq value is Ka, also known as acidity constant, which measures the strength of an acid in solution

Answer 57

Only force acting on object is gravity; no horizontal acceleration, force stopped acting on object when enters arc - Movment in x and y direction function independently - \*\*Time is connector between x and y components - Projectile has some initial vertical velocity v_x = v_icosθ d_x = v_xt v_y = v_isinθ + gt v_y = 0 at top of curve then use kinematic eqns v_f² = v_i² + 2ad_y v_f = v_i + at ∆d = v_it + .5at²

Answer 58

The amount of energy required to raise the temp of 1 gram of water by 1 deg C

Answer 59

In all chromatography, two phases: **Mobile phase:** moving fluid or gas **Stationary phase:** immobile substance that retains some molecules moving through the mobile phase Solutes travelling at different speeds based on affinity for mobile and stationary phases

Answer 60

Magnetic **F_b = qvBsin0** Electric **F= -k Q₁Q₂ / d²,** ends up being **F = kq/d²** * COULOMBS LAW * negative cancels with negative charge

Answer 61

**F=Eq** **W = q∆V**

Answer 62

Q = vA v = velocity A = area ( look for units²)

Answer 63

Ksp = [A+]^a[B-]^b A= cation B = anion

Answer 64

**ΔG = –RTln(Keq)** Keq is \> 1

Answer 65

Takes advantage of two liquid phases: **polar aqueous phase (usually water)** and relatively **nonpolar organic phase** (organic solvent, immiscible with water (don't mix)) liquid half in separatory funnel, denser liquid at the bottom Like dissolves like, shaking the funnel separates them into polar and nonpolar solutes * \*\*If compound is uncharged and has both polar and nonpolar groups, **non polar groups win** * by using acid base properties, you can add protons to create polarity Can separate two different acids if they have very different pKa's

Answer 66

Separates liquid by their boiling point using votality and vapor pressure * vapor pressure: pressure exerted by liquid molecules * Round bottom flask with mixture is heated * Liquid becomes gas and rises up to a condensor * Cold water around condensor changes gas back to liquid Doesn't always separate perfectly --\> REPEAT DISTILLATIONS **Fractional:** Uses fractional distillation to separate liquids with close boiling points **1. Increases vertical distance** that vapor travels 2. Allows vapor to recondense and revaporize repeatedly

Answer 67

Can be used to detect impurities in a sample **Stationary phase:** glass or plastic plate coated with a thin layer of absorbent material like **silica gel (HIGHLY POLAR)** **Mobile phase:** **nonpolar solvent** such as hexane, referred to as **"eluent"** 1. Spots are placed at bottom of stationary phase plate and just above mobile phase solvent **2. Capillary action** pulls mobile phase up the plate, compounds in the sample will also travel upward Nonpolar particles travel further than polar (have higher affinity for plate and don't want to move) Allows us to make rough measurements of polarity of compounds using **Retention Factor (Rf)** = **distance travelled by compound/distance travelled by solvent** - nonpolar compounds have higher Rf typically

Answer 68

**1. size exclusion:** separate components based on **physical size** * stationary phase has pore studded beads, **larger molecules pass through faster (OPPOSITE of what we'd think)** **2. cation exchange:** traps positive molecules, negatively charged stationary phase **3. anion exchange:** opposite 4. **affinity:** ligands designed to bind to molecule of interest are attached to stationary phase * once solution has passed through, dissociate bound compound of interest **5. gas-liquid:** gas mobile phase and sample, liquid is stationary phase * time spent in compound depends on volatility and affinity * smaller compounds have earlier peaks when analyzed

Answer 69

**Nucleation** Nucleus or tiny seed crystal initiates crystallization Scratch side of glass

Answer 70

Analysis of molecules based on interaction with electromagnetic radiation ## Footnote **IR:** Uses infrared radiation and molecule interactions \*\*\*different bonds have distinct ways of interacting with IR radiation \*\* must be a dipole present, usually polar covalent bonds vibrational frequencies: even those with dipole present, requires specific frequency of IR radiation to stretch or bend **x-axis:** different wavelengths of IR radiation **y-axis**: transmittance (low transmittance means high absorption)

Answer 71

Low frequency (below 2000) \*\*\* Carbonyl at 1650, SHARP PEAK Medium frequency (low 2000s) 3100-3500 BROAD AND WIDE 3300-3500

Answer 72

Colored compounds absorb some wavelengths of light and reflect others; we perceive an object to have color of the wavelength it reflects UV/Vis spectroscopy is basically identifying compounds based on their color

Answer 73

Characterizing a molecules atoms (unlike IR which characterizes bonds) by how they interact with magnetic field * either spin with field at lower energy or against it **1HNMR and 13CNMR** **upfield:** to the right, shielding **downfield:** to the left, deshielding Location on graph depends on **shielding and deshielding** of nucleus; **carboxylic acids and electronegative atoms are deshielding and to the left on graph** * use n+1 for number of hydrogens on carbons adjacent to the target carbon * this equates to its number of peaks on graph

Answer 74

Charged macromolecules like DNA or protein are suspended in agarose gel and migrate due to application of electric current (like electrolytic cells) Separates by size or charge * **Cathode**: negative charge * **Anode:** positive charge DNA negative phosphate groups move towards anode \*\*\*Can isolate to just size by negating charge of proteins using SDS (anionic detergent) which UNFOLDS and makes neutral charge * requires reducing agent to fully denature quaternary/tertiary structure

Answer 75

ssDNA or RNA to bond with cDNA or cRNA Used to anneal DNA strands and artificially replicate DNA

Answer 76

Repeated cycles of DNA sequencing that **doubles them each time** Can also amplify RNA if it is **reverse transcribed** Primers specific to target sequence 1. Reaction heated to 95 deg C to denature two strands of DNA 2. Cooled to allow primers to anneal to template strands 3. Heated again to initiate synthesis by DNA polymerase = Taq polymerase Heating and cooling done by thermocyclers

Answer 77

1. Extract by lysing cellular membranes either by freezing and thawing, solvents, detergents * often treated with protease inhibitors to keep lysed proteins from degrading other cells * cooled and pH maintained 2. Separation by **centrifugation** * **pellet**: heavy dense particles * **supernatant:** proteins usually stay in solution * or by solubility: changing salt concentrations of surroundings 3. Use chromatography to isolate desired protein

Answer 78

Temp and resistance increase linearly

Answer 79

Best primers for PCR have a high GC content and CG bases in 5′ and 3′

Answer 80

Red litmus paper is a base indicator. It turns blue at 8.1 pH and higher. While not a measure of pH levels, it's a quick and accurate way to determine if a solution is alkaline

Answer 81

The color arises because nickel(II) ion has partially filled d orbitals and the electrons in the lower energy d orbitals absorb visible light to move to the higher energy d orbitals.

Answer 82

the number of photons, and the intensity of electromagnetic radiation is defined as energy emitted per unit time. Thus, intensity is directly proportional to the number of photons emitted

Answer 83

**v_i = 0** **a = g** **d = y** d = v_it + 1/2gt² or v_f² = v_i²+ 2gy

Answer 84

Gives food its distinctive brown color when burned; occurs between 140 and 160 deg C * Amino acids in foods react with certain carbohydrates * happens faster under basic conditions, amino groups deprotonated At very high temps, carcinogen acrylamide can form if the food is charged Reducing sugars act as reducing agents with amino acids * All monosaccharides any sugar with free aldehyde and non-aldose sugars that can be converted to an aldose (fructose) * due to keto-enol tautamerism * disaccharides and polysaccharides with free anomeric carbons **Cu2+, Ag+, Fe3+ detect reducing sugar presence in reactions**

Answer 85

Testing for reducing sugars; Diagnosis of diabetes; diabetics have abnormally high blood glucose from not producing enough insulin or cells not responding to it * excess glucose ends up in urine **Tollen's Test:** Silver ions used to oxidize an aldose (reducing sugar) which produces solid silver **Benedicts Test:** Similar reaction with Cu2+ instead; begins with bright blue color and turns into red

Answer 86

Utilizes carefully picked antibodies to detect a substance of interest

Answer 87

If wave travels from one medium into another * changes speed of waves and bends the light * Light only refracts when it hits medium at an angle * **Dispersal of light:** light with a longer wavelength (like red light) doesn't change speed or bend as much as that with a shorter wavelength when passing into a new medium **n = c / v** * c = speed of light in a vacuum * v = light speed in medium * n is always greater than 1; n_airis pretty much 1

Answer 88

Valence electrons of atom - bonds - nonbonded electrons

Answer 89

**Single displacement -** free elements have oxidation state of 0, can change when bonded in a compound **Combustion-** hydrocarbon + oxygen = CO2 + water **Combination-** A + B --\> AB

Answer 90

Two or more nuclei are forced together by extremely high levels of energy(like the sun), causing them to merge into new larger nucleus * releases a lot of energy due to dissipation of binding energy of larger nucleus **produces a neutron**

Answer 91

Large nucleus split into 2 or more nuclei no nuclear particles lost

Answer 92

Light shone on a metal surface causes electrons to be emitted from the metal * **E_kinetic = hf - Φ** net energy, the energy of the emitted photon minus the energy needed to remove the electron.

Answer 93

Pressure of a liquid on an object as well as atmospheric pressure above it **P_absolute= P_atmospheric + P_hydrostatic** \*atmospheric pressure is higher at lower altitude

Answer 94

\*\*at the interface between air and water at the surface, the water molecules forces act unevenly on the ones at the surface and has no interactions with the air molecules * this imbalance of forces creates tension Surface tension = **Force / Length (N/m)**

Answer 95

Effect of intermolecular forces within a given substance causing them to stick together **Adhesion forces** are molecules sticking to another type of molecule * if adhesive forces are stronger than surface tension forces, liquid will crawl up walls of container and surface is curved (concave)(**meniscus)** if fluid acts more strongly with itself than walls of container, has a convex shape

Answer 96

**Laminar Flow:** flowing fluid composed of parallel layers that may be moving at different velocities **Turbulent flow:** flowing fluid composed of mixed layers that vary in pressure and speed * the higher the velocity, the more likely the flow is to become turbulent

Answer 97

**1st harmonic:** Standing wave on a string with only one antinode is lowest frequency * wavelength is twice the length of string (1 wavelength is two antinodes) **2nd harmonic:** two antinodes, wavelength = length of string **3rd harmonic:** 3 antinodes, 1.5 wavelengths **λ = 2L / N** * for 3rd harmonic, N= 3 * L = length of string

Answer 98

Mass defect is the difference between the predicted mass and the actual mass of an atom's nucleus. The **binding energy of a system can appear as extra mass,** which accounts for this difference.

Answer 99

Groups with electron pairs to donate The oxygen anion, **-O^-** Alcohol groups, **-OH** Amine groups, **-NH2 or -NR2** Ethers, **-OR** **Alkyl groups** are also weakly electron-donating.

Answer 100

EWGs **make electrophiles stronger,** because the electron-withdrawing effect makes any carbon center even more electron deficient than before. EWGs **make any nucleophilic species less reactive**, for the same reason as they strengthen electrophiles. Nucleophiles need electron density to react with electrophiles Nitro groups **(-NO₂)** Aldehydes **(-CHO)** Ketones (**-C=OR)** Cyano groups **(-CN)** Carboxylic acid **(-COOH)** Esters **(-COOR)**

Answer 101

any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent. In an alkaline solution, a reducing sugar forms some aldehyde or ketone, which allows it to act as a reducing agent, for example in Benedict's reagent

Answer 102

**Watts:** J / s **Coulomb:** Apmere x sec (Ampere = current) **Pascal:** N / m² **Volts:** W / Ampere **Ohms:** V / Ampere

Answer 103

10¹² 10⁹ 10⁶ 10^-1 10^-2 10^-6 10^-9

Answer 104

derived from benzenes

Answer 105

a portion of a larger whole, especially a sample taken for chemical analysis or other treatment.

Answer 106

any of a class of compounds which are fatty acid esters of glycerol phosphate with a nitrogen base linked to the phosphate group.

Answer 107

color to appear in organic compounds. Electron delocalization

Answer 108

**∆Suniverse ≥ 0** The entropy of a system will naturally increase over time * entropy (S) = energy not available to do work If two objects are in contact but not thermal equilibrium, heat energy will spontaneously go from higher to lower temp * ∆S = Q/T Entropy can decrease but it requires input of energy, however entropy of surroundings increase more so entropy of universe increases

Answer 109

**Heat capacity** is the heat required to raise the temperature of an object by a certain unit of temperature. **Specific heat** as the amount of heat required to raise one gram of an object by one degree Kelvin (or Celsius).

Answer 110

**Isothermal processes:** constant temperature and therefore ∆U = 0 **Adiabatic processes:** heat is not exchanged and Q = 0 **Isovolumetric processes:** the volume cannot change, work cannot be done, and therefore W = 0

Answer 111

technique that allows for the **calculation of heat transfer** associated with chemical or physical reactions using a tool called a **calorimeter** under specific constraints For a bomb calorimeter, contains a reaction and a fluid with different variables which can exchange heat use **q_r=q_c** * **mc∆T** (of reactants) **= mc∆T** (of products)

Answer 112

**high temperatures**, **have lower energy,** and are **more stable**. However, their formation occurs more slowly because greater activation energy is required.

Answer 113

**a lower temperature, have higher energy, and are less stable**. Their formation occurs more quickly because smaller activation energy is required. * Product B is kinetic, Product A is thermodynamic

Answer 114

**rate-limiting or rate-determining step,** since the velocity of the overall reaction is limited by the slowest step.

Answer 115

Temp and pressure

Answer 116

All salts in group 1 are soluble (Na, K, Li) All nitrates salts soluble

Answer 117

Use priority to find is highest priority groups are on same or opposite sides of double bond - same = Z - different = E

Answer 118

1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg = 101 kPa

Answer 119

pH = pKa +/- 1

Answer 120

how the straight-line molecules cyclize. **alpha isomer:** the -OH group linked to the anomeric carbon points opposite, or underneath, the in-ring oxygen. **beta isomers:** can be identified when the -OH group is linked to the anomeric carbon points in the same direction as, or above, the in-ring oxygen.

Answer 121

unsaturation or heteroatoms replacing one or more carbon atoms of the ring.

Answer 122

category of organic compounds that is formally derived from carbamic acid (**NH2COOH)**

Answer 123

All substrates (A and B) must bind to active site to form **ternary structure** before enzyme can convert them to product **ordered:** substrates bind to active site in specific order and products leave in specific order (ex. glycolysis) **random:** binding order doesn't matter **double-displacement (ping pong):** first substrate binds and forms intermediate ES complex which converts it to first product, THEN next substrate binds and does the same

Answer 124

Having a velence of 2

Answer 125

proteins that are involved in redox reactions. Specifically, cytochrome P450 acts as a monooxygenase, catalyzing an oxidation reaction.

Answer 126

Removes hydrogen, binds to oxygen

Answer 127

**Sucrose-** table sugar; composed of glucose and fructose **Lactose-** dairy products galactose and glucose * majority of world's adults lack lactase, lactose intolerant * all mammals express lactase in childhood for breast milk but expression turns off * northern european and african heritages continue expression **Maltose-** two glucose monomers; less sweet than sucrose

Answer 128

Heat transfer via movement of liquids

Answer 129

negative aminos and K+, outside of cell is rich in Ca2+, Na+, and Cl-

Answer 130

Low melting and boiling points, low polarity ex. alkanes very volatile think of the order of intermolecular bonds: ion-dipole, hydrogen bonding , dipole-dipole, london disperson

Answer 131

Number of equivalent weights x molarity N₁V₁ = N₂V₂

Answer 132

moles solute / kg solvent

Answer 133

Native page analyzes size and 3D structure and charge SDS page reduces folding and charge, just size * **reducing vs. nonreducing (disulfide bonds)**: if divided into two additional sub units if they are held by disulfide bonds, then the reducing SDS PAGE would separate into 4 subunits whereas nonreducing SDS PAGE would reduce into just 2.

Answer 134

Reducing: NaBH4 -weak LiAlH4 strong Oxidizing agents: Na2Cr2O7 - sodium dichromate CrO3 - chromium trioxide PCC