3 Flashcards

1
Q

Why are there 2 phases of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway if the oxidative phase produces both NADPH and ribose 5-phosphate?

A

Some cells don’t need both of these products, only one

  • ex. Liver cells and adipocytes need lots of NADPH but not ribose 5-phosphate, not constantly replicating their DNA

Oxidative phase produces a set ratio

Ribulose 5-phosphate gets shunted into non oxidative phase

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2
Q

Non-oxidative phase of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway

A

Recylces Ribulose 5-phosphate back to the oxidative phase (into G6P)

    1. Begins with 6 molecules of Ribose-5-phosphate
    1. Get converted into 5 molecules of Ribose 6-phosphate
    1. Easily converted to glucose 6-phosphate

Also produces glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which can enter glycolysis

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3
Q

Diabetes Mellitus

A

Metabolic disorder marked by improper glucose uptake by cells and high blood glucose levels

  • can lead to CVD, sudden weight loss, chronic kidney disease, impaired eyesight
  • 30 million+ americans (10% of population)

Body fails to produce insulin (reuptake of blood glucose into cells)

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4
Q

Role of Insulin

What is insulin produced by and where?

What kind of hormone?

A

Peptide hormone that causes reuptake of glucose into cells from bloodstream

  • Produced by Beta cells in the pancreas
    • released into bloodstream when glucose levels are high, tells cells to absorb it
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5
Q

How does pancreatic insulin release work?

Where is insulin stored?

A

Glucose enters pancreatic beta cells through special transporter protein called GLUT2

  • once inside, glucose proceeds through glycolysis and pyruvate products enter citric acid cycle
    • causes ATP:ADP ratio to increase

High ATP levels cause an ATP-sensitive potassium channels to slam shut, building up potassium in cell

  • reduces electric potential difference across cell membrane, causing voltage gated calcium channels to open allowing Ca in the cell

Causes Endoplasmic Reticulum to open its own calcium channels releasing more Ca ions into cytoplasm

  • insulin is stored in vesicles in the plasma membrane
    • Once cytoplasmic calcium reaches a certain level, vesicles fuse with plasma membrane and release
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6
Q

Insulin release from pancreatic B cell summary

A

Glucose is used to produce ATP

Causes a potassium buildup that triggers an influx of Calcium

Calcium is the stimulus for insulin release from secretory vesicles

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7
Q

What is calcium used for

A

Pancreatic insulin release, muscle contraction

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8
Q

Stimulants of insulin release

(Don’t need to know)

A
  • High blood glucose levels

- Acetylcholine: main neurotransmitter of parasympathetic NS

  • Arginine and Leucine amino acids
  • Pancreatic beta cells stimulated by digestive enzyme cholecystokinin
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9
Q

Inhibition of Insulin release

A

Norepinephrine- stress hormone inhibits insulin, FIGHT OR FLIGHT

  • increases blood glucose levels
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10
Q

Insulin responsive tissues

Do all cells need insulin to get glucose? which don’t?

A

Body cells that express receptors for insulin that insulin can interact with

  • Skeletal, cardiac muscle and fat cells

Insulin binds to receptors, activating GLUT4 transporters which fuse with membrane allowing glucose to move into the cell

**NOT all cells depend on insulin to get glucose

  • Liver and brain cells require so much that they get it themselves from the bloodstream
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11
Q

Different effects of insulin in the body

A

Glucose uptake

Glycogen metabolism

Lipid metabolism

Protein metabolism

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12
Q

Insulin affect on glycogen metabolism

A
  1. Upregulates glycogen synthesis in liver
  2. Inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
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13
Q

Insulin affect on lipid metabolism

A
  1. Promotes lipid storage by increasing triglyceride synthesis
  • tells adipocytes to absorb more fatty acids from lipoproteins circulating in the blood
    • links them with glycerol
  1. Opposes breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acid components by downregulating lipolysis
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14
Q

Insulin affect on protein metabolism

A
  1. Insulin prevents proteolysis
  2. Insulin absorbs amino acids to build new proteins

Stimulates protein synthesis

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15
Q

Type 1 Diabetes

How is it triggered?

What is the correction

A

Immune system destroys pancreatic Beta cells

  • body can’t produce any insulin or to a lesser extent

Genetic risk factors, onset also triggered by environmental factors

**Require synthetic insulin to survive

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16
Q

Type 2 Diabetes

A

Body loses the ability to respond to insulin

  • insulin resistance
    • ​Blood glucose levels too high

Brought on by lifestyle factors: obesity, stress, poor diet, lack of exercise

Can often recover in early stages with lifestyle changes, but may eventually need synthetic insulin as well

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17
Q

Role of Glucagon

A

Opposite of insulin

  • Peptide hormone synthesized in pancreas by ALPHA CELLS

Secreted when too little glucose in blood –> actually respond to low insulin levels

  • high insulin levels inhibit glucagon production + release

Binds to glucagon receptors; increases blood glucose conc

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18
Q

Affect of Glucagon on Glycogen metabolism

A

Promotes glycogenolysis and gluconeogenosis

Inhibits glycogenesis

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19
Q

Effect of Glucagon on lipid metabolism

A

Glucagon promotes lipolysis: triglyceride breakdown

  • activates protein kinase A which activates hormone sensitive lipases in adipose tissue

Increases fatty acid conc in blood

  • glycerol can also be used for energy in liver and kidneys
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20
Q

Effect of glucagon on protein metabolism

A

Inhibits protein synthesis and allows proteins to be broken down

  • amino acids can be taken up by liver cells for new glucose molecules via gluconeogenesis
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21
Q

More stable nucleotide pairing? Why?

A

Cytosine and guanine, 3 H-bonds instead of 2

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22
Q

Nucleotides are joined by

A

Phosphodiester bonds

Sugar phosphate backbone

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23
Q

Is RNA or DNA more stable and why

A

RNA is less stable, only one strand and OH groups causes instability

  • exception: RNA hairpin loops, double stranded RNA viruses
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24
Q

What is “Melting temp Tm” of DNA

A

Temp that 50% of strands are denatured, DNA with more G-C bonds have higher Tm

  • use heat or chemical (like urea)
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25
Annealing
Reverse of denaturing DNA where complementary bases bond again
26
DNA has grooves: major and minor
Binding sites for transcription factors
27
B-DNA A-DNA Z-DNA
**B-DNA:** most common conformation discovered by Watson and Crick; 10.5 base pairs per double helix turn **A-DNA:** tighter, more condensed **Z-DNA:** left handed, less condensed
28
Central Dogma
DNA ==\> transcription ==\> RNA ==\> translation ==\> protein
29
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
DNA is source of heritable info * Viruses incubated with radioactive **sulfur (protein)** and **phophorus (DNA)** * **​**DNA was passed onto bacteria
30
Messenger RNA mRNA
Template to synthesize protein
31
Heterogenous Nuclear RNA (hnRNA)
Precursor to mRNA
32
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Transfers amino acids to growing polypeptide chain - unique clover leaf structure - recognizes specific codons on mRNA to incorporate amino acids they code for into the protein
33
Ribosomal rRNA
Synthesized in **nucleolus**, essential role in translation - some act as **ribozymes (enzymes)**
34
small interfering RNA (siRNA) and miRNA inhibit
Gene expression (production of proteins)
35
Reverse transcriptase enzyme
Transcribes RNA into DNA * helps viruses propagate
36
20 amino acids created from 4 bases is possible due to
Reading aminos in groups of 3: **codons** **-** 43 = 64 codons
37
Degenerate genetic code
More than 1 codon can encode 1 amino acid
38
Start codon Stop codon
AUG (Met) UAA, UAG, UGA
39
Wobble hypothesis
First two codons usually conserved, 3rd has wobble room
40
Conservative DNA replication (theory)
DNA molecule duplicated, orginal molecule conserved
41
Semiconservative DNA replication (true)
DNA strand separates and each strand serves as template for new
42
Dispersive DNA replication (theory)
DNA backbone broken and new molecule has sections of old and new (Double strand)
43
Meselson-Stahl Experiment (to discover how DNA is replicated)
1. E. coli grown in media with 15N isotope 2. DNA moved into media with 14N and allowed to replicate 3. DNA extracted and centrifuged (15N heavier); new molecules had intermediate density * could be dispersive or semiconservative 4. DNA extracted again after more replication, centrifuged and intermediate as well as 14N bands appeared * rules out dispersive, = semiconservative
44
Prokaryote DNA replication
One origin of replication; sequence recognized by prereplication complex - Replication proceed in both directions along chromosome
45
Steps of Eukaryote DNA replication
S PHASE OF CELL CYCLE * Multiple origins of replication * Replication produces identical sister chromatid connected to DNA molecule at centromere of chromosome 1. Unwinding of double helix by **helicase enzyme** at replication fork 2. **single stranded DNA binding proteins** prevent separated strands from rejoining 3. **Topoisomerase enzyme (DNA gyrase)** relieves supercoiling caused by helicase by making incisions in one of the strands, uncoiling and rejoining 4. **Primase** initiates DNA replication by synthesizing short **RNA primer;** RNA primer has free 3' hydroxyl group used as starting point for synthesis of new strand * **Okazaki fragments** on lagging strand * **Ligase** bridges gap between fragments 5. **DNA polymerase:** travels along separated strand and adds nucleotides in **5' --\> 3' direction** * reads DNA 3' to 5'
46
Prokaryotic DNA polymerase
**DNA pol I:** removes RNA primer, replaces primer with DNA, repairs DNA **DNA pol II:** repairs DNA **DNA pol III:** synthesizes new DNA and proofreads DNA via 3' to 5' exonuclease activity
47
Eukaryotic DNA polymerase
**DNA pol α:** initiates DNA synthesis **DNA pol δ:** synthesizes new DNA and replaces RNA primer with DNA **DNA pol ε:** extends leading strand and repairs DNA **DNA pol β:** repairs DNA **DNA pol γ:** replicates mitochondrial DNA
48
**Telomerase**
Extends **telomeres;** RNA dependent DNA polymerase * repetitive sequences at ends of eukaryotic chromosomes * otherwise ends would get shorter and shorter --\> **aging** Germ cells, stem cells, and cancer cells have telomerase
49
How many chromosomes? Autosomes are?
23 linear pairs, 46 individual 22 **autosomes:** homologous pairs, 22 inherited maternally and matching 22 inherited paternally **23rd** is XY sex chromosomes
50
How is DNA packaged?
**Nucelosome:** Basic subunit of DNA packaging; 200 bp wrapped around **histone proteins** * histones further condensed into **chromatin fiber** Chromatin further condensed into loop domains and then chromosomes
51
Chromsome structure
P arm (petite), Q arm and then centromere connecting sister chromatids
52
**Heterochromatin vs Euchromatin**
**Heterochromatin:** tightly coiled, dense form; hard to access DNA **Euchromatin:** loose, spaghetti like configuration * allows DNA to be readily replicated and transcribed
53
Chromatin configuration has to do with ## Footnote **Acetylation of chromatin (what enzyme?)**
Chromatin configuration has to do with CHARGED attraction between DNA and histone proteins * DNA phosphate groups negative, histone proteins positive at histone tails Interaction is regulation by enzymes that add/remove acetyl groups from (+) charged lysine at the end of histone tailed * **Acetylation:** masks histone tails positive charge - promotes looser confirmation = _euchromatin_ * _​_**histone acetyltransferase** **Histone deactelyase** to go back to heterochromatin
54
98.8% of gene is noncoding How do we produce 2 million unique proteins?
44% transposons, 24% introns and regulatory sequences, 15% noncoding DNA, 15% repetitive DNA Alternative splicing, transcriptional and posttranscriptional modifications
55
Variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) and short tandem repeats (STRs)
of repeats of sequences in DNA varies in people, used for DNA fingerprinting
56
Single nucleotide polymorphism
Differences in one nucleotide at a specific location between different people
57
Transposons Class I and Class II
50% of genome; "jumping genes" sequences can jump to other parts of genome 1. **Class I (copy and paste):** DNA sequences transcribed to RNA then code reverse transcriptase enzyme 1. uses RNA template to make DNA copy and inserts itself somewhere else in genome 2. **Class II (cut and paste):** enzyme splices sequence from DNA and it moves elsewhere Thought to increase genetic diversity and evolution
58
Centromeres
Contain blocks of repetitive DNA sequences rich in GC base pairs, tightly packed to maintain structural integrity
59
Cell Cycle ## Footnote **M phase** **M/spindle checkpoint**
Mitosis or meiosis, cell division * **spindle checkpoint:** chromosomes attached to microtubule fibers DNA is packaged as heterochromatin
60
Cell Cycle ## Footnote **Interphase (G1, S, G2)**
90% of cycle, cell growth, organelle duplication, protein synthesis, DNA replication DNA is packaged as _euchromatin_ so proteins can be produced and allow transcription/translation * **G1 phase:** cell grows, protein synthesized * **G1 checkpoint:** Resting phase during G1 phase, can last indefinitely * if not enough nutrients during G1 checkpoint * Neurons, nonmitotic cells * **S phase:** DNA replication, # of chromosomes remains the same * **G2 phase:** more growth * **G2 checkpoint:** DNA completely replicated/undamaged
61
**Cyclins**
Present at each stage of cell cycle (specialize), levels are cyclical and spike when its time to use them * when at high levels, bind and activate **cyclin dependent kinases** which phosphorylate and activate proteins which promote activity of a certain phase
62
Mitosis
Cell division, makes two identical copies of a cell * Occurs in **somatic cells** (all cells in body but germ cells) * 4 phases: **Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase (PMAT)**
63
**Prophase** **homologous chromosomes**
- Nuclear envelope disintegrates - Nucleoli disappear (dense regions that assemble ribosomes) - DNA condenses into tightly packed chromatin **homologous chromosomes:** pair of maternal and paternal copies of same chromosome * not identical like sister chromatids * diff alleles of same genes
64
**kinetochore**
Complex of proteins assembled on centromere - where spindle fibers attach during metaphase which forms **mitotic spindle** * pull sister chromatids apart
65
**Centrosomes**
**Centrosomes:** 2 cylindrical centrioles which are made up of microtubule fibers, where spindle fibers come from * 2 at each pole of cell
66
Mitosis Metaphase
Chromsomes organized along **metaphase plate** * cell must pass **M checkpoint:** chromosomes properly arranged and attached to mitotic spindle
67
Nondisjunction Leads to:
Chromosomes fail to separate normally resulting in abnormal distribution in daughter cells * leads to **aneuploidy**: having extra or missing chromosomes
68
Mitosis Anaphase
Microtubule fibers pull apart sister chromatids
69
Telophase
Nuclear envelope and nucleoli reappaear for each daughter cell
70
Cytokinesis
Cytoplasmic division of a cell * mediated by **myosin and actin** proteins Create **cleavage furrow**
71
Meisosis
Sexual reproduction that generates gametes (egg and sperm cells) * wants genetically variable daughter cells unlike mitosis * produces 4 daughter cells with half the chromosomes of parents (haploid, 23 chromosomes) Only occurs in germ cells * produce **ova and sperm** via **oogenesis** and **spematogenesis** 2 rounds of division, PMAT
72
**Meiosis I** Prophase I
Maternal and paternal copies of each chromosome (homologous chromosomes, 4 sister chromatids) = **synapsis** * forms **tetrads** * alleles differ * **chiasmata:** points where homologs cross over genetic info
73
Meiosis I Metaphase I **Random assortment**
23 homolog pairs line up randomly * daughter cells get some maternal and some paternal DNA **Random/independent assortment**
74
Meiosis I Anaphase I
2 chromosomes in pair are separated to opposite poles (become sister chromatid pairs) * Daughter cells contain 23 chromosomes
75
Meiosis I Telophase I
Cell splits into haploid daughter cells * chromosomes still paired with identical copies
76
Meiosis II
Just like mitosis **1. Prophase II:** nuclear envelope breaks down **2. Metaphase II:** 23 chromosomes align along metaphase plate 3**. Anaphase II:** sister chromatids pulled apart 4. **Telophase II:** nuclear envelope reforms and cytokinesis
77
_Units to know:_ kilo milli micro nano deci centi
78
Base units
amps Kelvin seconds meters kilograms moles
79
Derived units: combination of base units
ex. Hertz, Newton, Pascal
80
Hertz (Hz)
s-1 Frequency
81
Newton
kg x m/s2 Force
82
Pascal (Pa)
N/m2 Pressure 1 atm = 101,325 Pascal
83
Joule (J)
N x m Energy, Work, Heat
84
Watt (W)
J/s Power
85
Coulomb (C)
**A x s** or **A = C/s** Electric charge
86
Volt (V)
J/C Electric potential
87
Farad (F)
**C/A** **Capacitance**
88
Ohm
Volts/Ampere Resistance
89
Tesla
Newtons/ Amperes x meters Magnetic field
90
Celsius
K-273
91
1 mile ~~ km 1 foot ~ cm 1 inch ~ cm 1 pound ~~ Newtons 1 gallon ~ L 1 Calorie ~ J ~ kcal
1.6 km 30 cm 2. 5 cm 4. 5 Newtons 4 L 4000 J ~ 1 kcal
92
Vectors
Magnitude and direction * displacement * velocity * acceleration * force * magnetic/electrical fields * bond dipoles Subtracting vectors: reverse the vector being subtracted
93
Scalars
No direction, just magnitude * temperature * loudness * distance * speed
94
Velocity =
Displacement / time m/s
95
Acceleration
Velocity / time m/s2
96
Displacement vs. time graph
Slope = velocity change in slope = ∆v = acceleration
97
Velocity vs. time
Slope = acceleration Area under curve = displacement
98
Acceleration vs time graph
Area = velocity
99
Kinematics definition
Study of motion w/ reference to forces involved
100
Key kinematics eqns
**d = vavg x time vavg = (vi + vf / 2)** **a = ∆v / t** **vf = vi + at**
101
Kinematics eqn when don't know final velocity When you don't know time
**d = vit + .5 at2** **vf2 = vi2 + 2ad**
102
Free fall problems
**vi = 0** **a = g** **d = y** **d = vit + .5gt2 or vf = √2gy**
103
Air resistance
Force due to air resistance eventually balances out due to gravity **terminal velocity:** object no longer accelerating
104
Projectile Motion
Only force acting on object is gravity; no horizontal acceleration, force stopped acting on object when enters arc - Movment in x and y direction function independently - \*\***Time is connector between x and y components** - Projectile has some initial vertical velocity **vx = vicosθ dx = vxt** **vy = visinθ vy = 0 at top of curve** **then use kinematic eqns vf2 = vi2 + 2ady**
105
Force Fundamental forces
Push or pull causes obj to accel - 1 N = **kg x m/s2** **Fundamental forces: **gravity, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, weak nuclear
106
Electromagnetic forces Normal force:
force between two contacting surfaces
107
Electromagnetic forces: Friction: force of friction
force that resists movement **ffriction = u N** **u = coeff or friction** **N = normal force**
108
Electromagnetic forces: Tension:
pulling force exerted by a string or rope
109
Electromagnetic forces: Centripetal force
Force that causes something to move in a circular path or elliptical path - can be electromagnetic or gravitational
110
Electromagnetic forces: Springs Hooke's law
Stretched or compressed - elastic force Fspring = kx * k = spring constant (stiffness), x = distance
111
Newtons 1st Law
Law of Inertia * in the absence of external force, a body will remain in motion or rest Resistance to acceleration More mass = more inertia
112
Newtons 2nd Law:
Acceleration is proportional to net force **Fnet = ma** connects energy and movement
113
Newtons 3rd Law
Every action has equal and opposite reaction
114
Conservative forces
Conserve energy, path-independent * \*only concern final and initial states * energy not lost to environment ex. Gravity, electrostatic, magnetic, spring, pushing/pulling
115
Non conservative forces
Dissipate energy, path dependent * friction, air resistance, viscosity F = mg Gm1m2 / r2 Gravitational force between two masses
116
Electrostatic force In a uniform electric field equation Non uniform
Electromagnetic force between two charges not moving relative to each other * In a uniform electric field: **F = qE** * non uniform EF: **F = k (Q1 q2) /r2** * **​**Coulombs law * k = constant * Q1 and q2 are charges
117
Hookes Law
Spring forces **F = k∆x** k= stiffness of spring
118
Biological approach to human behavior is based off of
Genes, hormones, neurotransmitters - Physical processes
119
Psychological approach
The brain working as a whole - Emotions, attitudes, memories, cognition, personality
120
Ekman's list of Universal emotions
1. Happiness 2. Surprise 3. Sadness 4. Fear 5. Disgust 6. Contempt 7. Anger
121
Sociological approaches to behavior
Complicated systems - making sense of society * lots of different perspectives * Social constructionism * Symbolic interactionism * Functionalism * Conflict theory Difficulty using experiments - retrospective study designs, cross sectional designs; present moment relationships * qualitative research, words not numbers
122
Social constuctionism
Notion placed on an object/event by society
123
Symbolic interactionism
Use of verbal, written, or physical communication and subjective understanding
124
Functionalism
All of society should serve a function for the society
125
Conflict Theory
Society is in perpetual conflict for limited resources
126
Cultural learning
behavior passed through culture
127
Adaptive traits
Trait which promotes reproductive success
128
Temperament
How an individual responds behaviorally and emotionally to stimuli from the world
129
Environmental factors for behavior
* Non-genetic influences * ex. family wealth, stress, endocrine-disrupting compounds, complex family relationships Genes expressed more or less with environmental stimuli Experience shapes behavior DNA promoters that initiate expression and regulatory genes for proteins could vary in people * ex. allele in gene for promoting serotonin (5HT-T) makes people susceptible to depression
130
Nature vs. Nurture heritability
Trying to characterize the heritability of a trait **heritability:** degree of variation in a trait due to variation in the genotype * (how much a trait is determined by genes alone Twin studies monozygotic and dizygotic Adopted children - genetics of real parent but environment of foster
131
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Trouble metabolising phenylalanine - Buildup causes cognitive impairment - Low phenylalanine diet is best treatment
132
Epigenetics
Changes to genome that don't involve changing actual nucleotide content * ex. methylation of cytosine, silences specific genes * stress, exercise, heritable
133
Pregnancy (lasts how long, divided into, prenatal development governed by)
Pregnancy lasts 37-41 weeks, 3 trimesters 1. **First trimester:** major structures of fetus formed 2. **Second trimester:** fetus grows 3. **Third trimester:** getting swole At 12 weeks, fetus organ architecture formed **Prenatal development:** * Umbilical cord connected to **placenta:** highly vascular bed of tissue, brinds fetal and maternal circulation in proximity to exchange nutrients, gases, waste * Maternal malnutrition and smoking can harm fetal development * Stress, anxiety, depression
134
Infancy to childhood Reflexes for infants:
**Palmar grasp reflex:** baby grasps anything touching its palm **Rooting:** infant searches for object touching mouth/cheek **Sucking:** automatically sucks when something touches top of mouth **Moro reflex:** in response to sudden movement/loud sounds; baby extends arms, throws back head and cries **Babinski reflex:** toes stretch out when foot is tickled
135
Devlopmental Stages (3):
* _0-12 months_ * **Walking** ~ 1 year * **Motor:** standing w/ assistance, crawling, holding toys * **Social:** primary caregiver, solitary, stranger anxiety, object permanence * **Linguistic:** laughing, bubbling, simple words * _12-24 months_ * **Physical independence:** walking, climbing, drawing, throwing, stacking * **Social/linguistic**: terrible twos, sense of self, boundaries (none) * _3+ years_ * More complex/mature behavior, toilet training, awareness of gender * Further language development
136
Critical period of infancy
Time when experiences imprint life-long effects - Language development is critical
137
Adolescence
12-19 years * Cognitive, social , behavioral changes
138
Puberty
Puberty: biological changes * earlier in females, menarche is landmark (first menstruation) * development of secondary sex characteristics * pubic hair, breasts and wider hips, facial hair and adams apple * fat and muscle distribution different between sexes All orchestrated by **sex hormones-** testosterone and estradiol Obesity affects hormone exposure, earlier puberty
139
Adulthood
Prefrontal cortex develops until ~25 * Responsible for rational decision making * Neuronal axons in prefrontal cortex covered in **myelin sheaths**, transmit signals faster
140
Aging
Degradation of telomeres * limits cell division * Gradual physical devline, more prone to disease * mental processing slows and fluid intelligence
141
Crystallized intelligence
Knowledge accumulated over time - Remains stable - Elderly considered wise
142
Fluid intelligence
Fluid intelligence is the ability to think abstractly, reason quickly and problem solve independent of any previously acquired knowledge.
143
Endocrine system functions
Fluid regulation, metabolism, blood-glucose and calcium levels * One of two physical systems that regulates BEHAVIOR Network of organs that secrete signalling molecules into the bloodstream (hormones) * some cause direct changes, some cause release of other hormones * **tropic hormones:** target other endocrine glands, helps with control of systems
144
tropic hormones:
target other endocrine glands, helps with control of systems
145
**Hormonal Axis: starts with**
Endocrine system from brain southward; higher glands regulate lower ones * **Hypothalamus:** converts input from nervous system into endocrine signals * hypo = low, below thalamus in forebrain, above pituitary gland Hypothalamus releases high level hormones to the pituitary gland, where other tropic hormones released * ex. GnRH (gonadotropic releasing hormone, triggers LH and FSH reproductive hormones) * CRF- promotes ACTH which releases cortisol from adrenal glands
146
Endocrine system Hormonal axis: hypothalamus signals ____ via the \_\_\_\_ What hormones?
Pituitary glands * **Anterior pituitary:** receives input from **hypophyseal portal system** (connecting blood vessels, hormones) * Releases Luteinizing Hormone, (LH) * Follicle Stimulating hormone, (FSH) * thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) * Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) * Prolactin (milk production) * Endorphins (reduce perception of pain) * Growth hormones * **Posterior pituitary:** controlled by hypothalamus _via neuronal signals_ instead of hormonal * Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates fluid balance * diabetes insipidus: inability to regulate fluid balance * Oxytocin (labor)
147
Endocrine system Thyroid and Parathyroid Hormone?
Located in the throat - Releases **thyroid hormone** which affects metabolism and behavior
148
Endocrine system Pancreas
Abdomen, less important behaviorally
149
Endocrine system Adrenal glands
Above kidneys _2 distinct areas:_ 1. **Cortex:** secretes **cortisol** and mediates chronic stress response 2. **Medulla:** epinephrine and norepinephrine, and flight or fight response
150
Endocrine system Ovaries and testies
Secrete estrogen and testosterone
151
Endocrine system hormonal axis from top to bottom:
Hypothalamus Pituitary glands: antieror and posterior Thyroid and parathyroid Pancreas Adrenal glands Ovaries and testes
152
Estrogen and testosterone
Promote libido, interest in sexual behavior (sex drive) * testosterone associated with aggression * both sexes secrete some of both
153
Oxytocin
Labor contractions, latation, social bonding (affection, mood) * primary examble of positive feedback, more oxytocin leads to more contractions which leads to more oxytocin * antidepressant, orgasms \*Produced by hypothalamus, secreted by pituitary gland
154
Prolactin
Induces lactation * Stress response, anxiety, depression, contributor to post-partum depression Produced by anterior pituitary gland
155
Melatonin (secreted by? production suppressed by?)
Secreted by **pineal** **gland** in brain * induces sleep * blue light suppresses melatonin production
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Hunger is regulated by (3 **hypothalamic hormones**)
Both produced in hypothalamus: **Leptin:** reduces hunger, released by adipocytes (fat cells) * also has roles in reproduction, immune system, obesity **Ghrelin:** promotes hunger, released by cells in gastrointestinal tract when stomach is empty (stomach growl --\> ghrelin) * learning, mood, sleep, reproduction **Neuropeptide Y (NPY):** stimulates appetite
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Stress Hormones
ADRENAL GLANDS **epinephrine and norepinephrine:** secreted by adrenal medulla * acute stress response, fight or flight * also secreted by neurotransmitters **cortisol:** released by adrenal cortex, chronic stress response * increases blood sugar
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Thyroid hormone
Promotes metabolism **hypo/hyperthyroidism:** * hypo- fatigue and depression * hyper - irritability
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Mechanism of Nervous system
Stimuli --\> perception --\> response
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Neurons components
Consists of **dendrites:** receive input from other nerves/organs **Soma** **Axon:** action potential travels down from dendrites **Axon terminal**
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At rest, electric potential difference of neuron membrane is Does stimuli reduce or raise this potential?
-70 mV Stimuli REDUCES **electric potential difference,** -55 mV causes action potential fire
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Action potential Synapse
Travels down axon to axon terminal * releases **neurotransmitters** at the **synapse** **synapse:** space between one neuron and another (or target cell)
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Reflexes **neuromuscular junction**
Automatic behaviors that occur in response to certain stimuli **Reflex arc:** simple neural pathways that control reflexes * ex. Patellar reflex, sensory neuron stretches from knee to spine * motor neuron signals back down to quadricep muscle Synapse between motor neuron and muscle is **neuromuscular junction** * motor neuron releases neurotransmitter **acetylcholine** which causes muscle to contract
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Sensory neurons are **\_\_\_\_\_** neurons Motor neurons are _____ neurons
AFFERENT neurons, carry info about stimuli to CNS EFFERENT neurons, signal effect to target cells SAME, sensory afferent motor efferent
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Neurotransmitters Excitatory vs. Inhibitory
Push the membrane potential difference in either direction Neurons geneally receive multiple signals, the SUM of inputs decide whether it will fire action potential **excitatory:** depolarizes membrane of target neuron, easier for signal to travel (higher mV, -70 to -55) **inhibitory:** hyperpolarizes target neuron, less likely to send signal
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How do neurotransmitters change electric potential?
Bind to receptors that open up ion channels * High specificity to different signals --\> receptor subtypes * different receptors in diff neurons ex. serotonin can have excitatory or inhibitory effect
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Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter, muscle contractions * also communicates signals between central NS and autonomic NS * sends signals from parasympathetic neurons to target
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Glutamate
Neurotransmitter; excitatory, depolarizes neurons * most common neurotransmitter, 90% of neuronal connections in brain * learning and memory Opposite of GABA
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GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
Neurotransmitter, **inhibitory** * Opposite of glutamate, hyperpolarizes neurons * slow or block certain signals in the brain
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Dopamine Associated disease?
Neurotransmitter; reward pathways and addiction * increased by psychoactive drugs, _euphoria_ * mediates _motor functions_ * loss of dopamine-secreting neurons in **substantia nigra** leads to **Parkinsons disease**
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Serotonin Antidepressants name
Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, intestinal movement * current hypothesis is depression associated with low serotonin **Antidepressants:** selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) * prevent serotonin from being taken up by neurons, stays in synapse longer
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Endorphins
Neurotransmitter; suppress pain and produce euphoria
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Agonist vs. Antagonists
**Agonists:** Compound that activates a certain receptor, causing a response * _partial agonists_: not as strong **Antagonists:** bind receptor but don't cause a response, prevents neurotransmitter from being able to exercise its affects
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Peripheral Nervous System
Extending nerves from brain and spinal cord to everywhere else * **somatic and autonomic**
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PNS Somatic NS
Voluntary acitivities, efferent motor nerves and sensory afferent nerves
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PNS Autonomic Nervous System
Unconcious activities * digestion, heart rate, breathing, pupil dilation, urination * ddivided into **sympathetic and parasympathetic**
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PNS Autonomic NS ## Footnote **Sympathetic NS**
Fight or flight response to acute stress * mobilizes resources to deal with emergency now * HR increases, epinephrine released, more resources to muscles * Pupils dilate, start sweating Also suppresses unnecessary functions like digestion, slows paralstalsis * tunnel vision, less likely sexual arousal
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PNS Autonomic NS ## Footnote **Parasympathetic NS**
Rest and digest response * blood vessels restrict supply to muscles, dilate in digestive tract * promotes digestion, salivation, urination, defecation, lacrimination (tear production), sexual arousal
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PNS Autonomic NS ## Footnote **Enteric NS**
Regulates activity of the gut
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Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord
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Forebrain (2 subunits)
Advanced functions like reasoning * **Diencephelon:** contains thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland * **thalamus:** relays sensory and motor signals * regulates sleep and alertness * **hypothalamus:** bridge between NS and endocrine system * **Pituitary gland:** releases hormones * **Telencephalon:** * **cerebrum:** cerebral cortex and subcortical structures * **cerebral cortex:** right and left hemispheres * **subcortical structures:** LIMBIC SYSTEM * **​****olfactory bulbs:** detecting odors * **hippocampus:** consolidates short term memory into long term * **basal ganglia:** eye movement, voluntary movement, habitual learning
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Midbrain
In between, vision and eye movement * **Inferior colliculus:** auditory input (not the primary place) * **Superior colliculus:** visual input (not the primary place) * **Substantia nigra:** neurons communicate with dopamine for voluntary movements Midbrain and medulla oblongata + pons form the **Brainstem,** physical support for the brain
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Hindbrain
Basic functions like breathing * **Cerebellum:** forms distinct structure at the base of the brain * coordinates movement, balance * **Medulla oblongata:** autonomic functions like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure * **Pons**: relay station for signals between cerebellum, medulla, and rest of brain * sleep, respiration, swallowing, taste
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Brainstem
**Midbrain and medulla oblongata + pons** form the Brainstem, physical support for the brain * contains **reticular activating system (RAS) --** modulates alertness and arousal
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Diencephelon:
Forebrain contains thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland * **thalamus:** relays sensory and motor signals * regulates sleep and alertness * **hypothalamus:** bridge between NS and endocrine system * **Pituitary gland:** releases hormones
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Telencephalon:
Forebrain * c**erebrum: c**erebral cortex and subcortical structures * **cerebral cortex:** right and left hemispheres * **subcortical structures:** LIMBIC SYSTEM * **​olfactory bulbs:** detecting odors * **hippocampus:** consolidates short term memory into long term * **basal ganglia:** eye movement, voluntary movement, habitual learning
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Limbic system
Emotion, motivation, memory **subcortical structures:** LIMBIC SYSTEM + hypothalamus, amygdala **- ​olfactory bulbs:** detecting odors **- hippocampus**: consolidates short term memory into long term **- basal ganglia:** eye movement, voluntary movement, habitual learning - **amygdala:** episodic memory, attention, emotion - **Nucleus accumbens:** reward, motivation, learning; implicated in addiction
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Cerebral cortex 4 lobes
1. **Frontal lobe:** voluntary movement, memory processing, planning, motivation, attention * **Broca's area:** language production 2. **Parietal lobe:** all sensory processing but vision 3. **Occipital lobe:** vision, back of brain 4. **Temporal lobe:** meaning, visual memories, language * **Wernickes area:** language comprehension
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Brocas area
Located in frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex Language production
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Wernickes Area Location
Located in temporal lobe of cerebral cortex * language comprehension
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Lateralization (brain)
Tendency of left and right hemispheres to specialize * different neurons respond differently to neurotransmitters
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Spinal cord
Link between central and peripheral NS * both brain and spinal cord protected by **cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)** Also protected by **meninges (tough membranes)** and by **bones** (skull and vertebrae
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Vertebrae
Holes in middle for spinal cord; **cervical** (C1-C7), t**horacic** (T1-T12), **lumbar** (L1-L5), **sacrum** (S1-S5)(fused together) Ends with **coccyx** * **D.orsal** * **A.fferent nerves** * **V.entral** * **E.fferent nerves**
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Dermatomes
Areas of skin with nerves that correspond to different vertebrae
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Methods of studying the brain/other parts of body
Observing injury and stimulation to certain areas with electrodes or chemicals **Electroencephalograms (EEG):** using electrodes on brain, identify function not structure **Computed Tomography (CT):** 2D x-rays to make 3D image **Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):** magnetic fields, no radiation, better at imaging soft structures **Positron Emission Tomography (PET):** radiolabels glucose with fludeoxyglucose, emits positrons as it decays * more decay = more glucose metabolised = more neural activity * can diagnose tumors, strokes, dementia **fMRI:** now preferred over PET, relies on differences in magnetic properties b/w oxygenated hemoglobin (arterial blood) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (venous blood) * visualize blood flow
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Genes
DNA sequence that codes for a protein that produces a trait * Genes found at specific locations are called **locus** Variations in same gene are **alleles -** one on each homologous chromosome * dominant or recessive * hemizygous = one copy present * homozygous = two **Wild type:** most common variant (W+W+) **Mutant:** mutated alleles
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Loss of function mutations Gain of function mutations
Tend to be recessive, can be covered Gain of function usually dominant
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Test cross Backcrossing
Homozygous recesssive cross to determine genotype Crossing offspring with parent genotype
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Codominance
Two dominant alleles expressed ex. ABO blood types, type AB
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Incomplete dominance
Blended phenotype, heterozygote
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Penetrance
Likelihood a genotype will manifest a phenotype
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Expressivity
Severity of a phenotype
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Inheritance Patterns Pedigrees
**Autosomal:** non sex chromosomes, recessive can skip generations **de novo:** spontaneous mutation **Sex-linked:** usually X-linked, recessive or dominant
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Mendel's Laws ## Footnote **Segregation:** **Independent assortment** **Dominance:** **Linkage:**
**Segregation:** allele pairs segregate randomly from each other into gametes **Independent assortment:** alleles for separate traits independently inherited; not always true due to linkage * **linkage:** genes close to each other on same chromosome are usually inherited together unless genetically recombined (crossing over at chismata) **Dominance:** recessive alleles mask to some degree
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Centimorgans and linkage Single vs. Double crossover b/w homologs
Distance associated with a 1% change in recombination frequency * ex. 1 Cm = 1% chance of recombination * 50 Cm = unlinked Double crossover- genes so far apart 2 crossover events cause them to be on same chromosome
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Evolutionary system:
1. Variation 2. Reproduction 3. Differential reproduction due to selective pressure
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Natural selection
Describes how favorable traits are favored over time * underlying mechanism Fitness is relative to environment
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Altruism
Acting in a way that benefits others survivals * I'd save 2 brothers or 8 cousins
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Group selection
Natural selection applied to a group level
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Inclusive fitness
Traits passed on that promote survival of the group * altruism, empathy, sharing alleles
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Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Mathematical relationship between alelles and phenotype frequencies Used to model stable gene pools * **gene pool:** evolutionary success indicated by popular alleles in gene pool * stable: * no mutation * random mating * large population size * no natural selection A = p a = q _allele frequency:_ **p + q = 100%** _phenotype frequency:_ **p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1**
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Earth age Life age Human age
4.6 billion years 3-4 billion years 200,000 years
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Natural Selection Types: ## Footnote **stabilizing** **directional** **Dispruptive**
**stabilizing:** favors intermediate phenotypes **Directional:** favors one extreme **Disruptive:** both extremes favored
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Ways gene pools may change:
Natural selection and chance **Genetic drift:** change in gene pool due to random chance, usually in smaller populations * **Bottleneck effect:** natural disaster artifically increases/decreases allele frequency * **Founder effect:** reduction in genetic diversity due to small group founding a new colony Random errors in the genome accumulate at a fixed rate; can be used to tell how long ago there was a shared ancestor **Gene flow:** movement of alleles due to migration between populations
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Factors influencing evolution:
Gene flow Random Chance Migration Mutation Selective pressure
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Species
Group of organisms that can form fertile offspring and reproductively isolated from other groups * contested, doesn't apply to asexual organisms, like bacteria or hybridization
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Reproductive Isolation ## Footnote **Prezygotic and Postzygotic barriers**
**Prezygotic:** prevent zygote from forming **Postzygotic:** prevent formed zygote from being visibile or fertile * hybrids: two different species make viable offspring thats usually sterile
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Inbreeding vs. Outbreeding
Inbreeding: Breeding between closely genetically related individuals * deleterious recessive mutations Outbreeding: breeding with and passing alleles between unrelated members of same species * genetic diversity
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Divergent vs. Convergent Evolution
**Divergent:** Common ancestor splits into two species due to different traits **Convergent:** two species become more phenotypically similar, not as common
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Parallel Evolution Coevolution
**Parallel Evolution:** 2 closely related species share a common ancestor and evolve similar traits independently **Coevolution:** evolution of two species in response to eachother, symbiotic relationships
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Symbiosis and types
Relationship between two organisms that benefits, harms, or has no effect for one or both parties * **Mutualism:** both organisms benefit * **Commensalism:** one organism benefits, no effect on other * **Parasitism:** parasite benefits from harming its host
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Center of mass equation
Xcenter = m1x1 + m2x2... / (m1 + m2) x = distance to masses from reference point
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Static vs. Kinetic Friction
Static: opposes movement of an object not moving * magnitude depends on force applied to object Kinetic: opposes object in motion * constant magnitude Different materials have different coefficients **Fmax = us N** * Force required to move object depends on coeff of static friction and normal force on object **Fkinetic = uk N**
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Pulleys and inclined planes
Reference work
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Gravitational and centripetal force equations
**Fgrav = Gm1m2 / r2** * G = gravitational constant * 6.67 x10-11 m3 /kg s2 **Fcentripetal = mv2/r** * if caused by gravity, then g = v2/r
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Torque
JOINTS, DIPOLES (rotate to align in electric field) Force applied to rotate an object around a fixed axis * rotational force applied to a lever arm at a distance from the **fulcrum** **T= Fdsin**θ Strongest torque = force at 90 degrees, greatest distance from fulcrum * sin90 = 1 Clockwise = neg T CCW = positive
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Lipids
2 layers = **bilayer membrane,** polar exterior and nonpolar interior * small nonpolar molecules can diffuse easily, large polars can't Sterols Glycolipids
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Sterols
Lipids Cholesterol, modulates fluidity of plasma membranes * characteristic 4 ring structure Steroid hormones
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Glycolipids
Carbohydrate modifies the lipid instead of a phosphate group Peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide * cell signaling and cell adhesion * amphipathic structure * either glycerol or sphingosine backbone **Glyceroglycolipid** **Sphingolipid:** sphingomyelin clusters with cholesterol to form "lipid rafts" * modulate fluidity and clusters for signaling
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Proteins of cell membrane ## Footnote **Integral** **Lipid-anchored** **Peripheral** **Glycoproteins**
**Integral:** embedded in plasma membrane * transmembrane proteins: completely cross cell membrane * protein pumps, ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors **Lipid-anchored:** bound to 1+ lipid molecules which anchor protein to membrane * **G-protein:** intracellular, coordinate cascade initiated by G protein coupled receptors **Peripheral-** found in cytoplasm, temporarily attached to integral proteins * enzymes and hormones, only briefly interact with membrane **Glycoproteins:** glycosylated proteins (addition of carbohydrate) * Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) * antigens of ABO blood type system * cell recognition and communication processes
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Liposomes
Lipid bilayers enclosing a spherical space * lab derived, deliver material to target cells * test cell membrane permeability * can also embed proteins
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Micelles
Structurally simpler liposome, only a single layer lipid membrane * can reduced surface tension of a solution * **surfactants** * don't contain membrane proteins
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Fluid Mosaic Model
Cell membrane is constantly in motion; motion is constrained * Forms coherent hole but pieces are visible Phospholipids can move horizontally but not vertically * need enzymes to catalyze movement * **Flippase:** moves phospholipids from external side to internal side * **Floppase:** opposite * **Scramblaser:** bidirectional Degree to which phospholipids can move laterally is membrane fluidity * makes space for diffusion and imbedded proteins * too much/too little fluidity would be an issue
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Modulating fluidity of bilayer membrane
Cholesterol: regulates extremes * at cold temperatures, cholesterols ring structure gives fatty acid tails a rigid shape; keeps space between them * inhibits fluidity in heat
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Phospholipid structure
Phosphate head, saturated and unsaturated fatty acid tails * **saturated:** no C=C double bonds; stackable, interact with each other easily, and higher melting pt * interactions between tails which are closer together * **unsaturated:** at least one C=C; lower melting points and more fluidity
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Simple Diffusion (Passive Transport)
Down concentration gradient, high to low * small molecules: * gases (O2, CO2) * **essential for respiration** * small uncharged polar molecules * H2O, ethanol, urea
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Osmosis (simple diffusion) Isotonic, Hypotonic, Hypertonic
Water diffuses to side with highest solute concentration * semi-permeable membrane **Isotonic:** equal conc of solutes **Hypotonic:** more solute inside than outside, cell can burst or swell * increases pressure, headaches and drowsiness * IV hydration administers isotonic saline **Hypertonic:** more solute outside cell, cell shrinks * can be used to preserve food, kills bacteria (plasmolysis)
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Osmotic Pressure Van't Hoff's Law
Water exerts pressure on membrane and blocks any more from passive Minimum pressure to prevent further osmosis **Van't Hoff's Law: π = MRT** * M = molarity (n/L) (moles / Liters solute) * R = ideal gas constant * T = temp in Kelvin
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Molality
Moles solute / kg solvent
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Osmolarity:
Molarity of all solute particles (1 mol NaCl would be 2 osm/L)
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Van't Hoff Factor
π = iMRT i = # of particles per molecule ex. NaCl i=2
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Facilitated Diffusion (passive transport)
Molecules too big or polary undergo facilitated diffusion * Transmembrane channels serve as transporter for molecules * specific for solutes * respond to stimuli to open * flow is down concentration gradient, no ATP Against osmotic gradient, thermodynamically favored (increases entropy) Channels can bottleneck and rates of diffusion level off = **saturation kinetics**
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Aquaporins
Transporter specific for water * transmembrane proteins that selectively conduct water molecules * highly polar * rate of osmosis is limited
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Ion Channels
Transport ions * extremely specific * selective for when they open up * response to signals * **voltage:** changes in electric membrane potential **Voltage gated ion channel:** neuronal signaling and propagation of action potentials **Ligand-gated transporters:** open in response to signal molecules * neurotransmitters Channels can respond to light, pressure, shearing (breaking off), stretching
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Active Transport
Requires ATP to move solute AGAINST a concentration/electrochemical gradient * Primary and secondary active transport
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Primary Active Transport
Transmembrane proteins catalyze ATP hydrolysis --\> releases energy --\> moves solutes across membrane * transmembrane **ATPases** catalyze hydrolysis of ATP * can also be powered by _redox reactions or energy from photons_ redox example: Enzymes of electron transport train in mitochondria use energy released from redox rxns to translocate proteins across inner mito membrane against conc gradient ex. **Sodium Potassium pump** * Na+K+ ATPase
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Sodium Potassium Pump
Body maintains difference in concentrations of Na and K ions inside and outside of cell * Sodium has higher conc out of cell "**blood is salty"** * Potassium has higher conc inside cell **3 sodium in for 2 K+ out for each ATP molecule** * Maintains a net charge imbalance of -1 inside cell * \*\* contributes to membrane potential
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Secondary Active Transport
Active and passive transport * Active transport generates conc gradient which powers passive transport of something else * spontaneous process powers a nonspontaneous one * direction can be opposite or same * **symporter and antiporter** **ex.** **Sodium-Glucose cotransporter:** symporter moves sodium and glucose into cell via passive transport using NaK pump conc gradient
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cyt = cytosis= endo = exo= phago = pino=
cyt = cell cytosis= cell absorption/ release endo = inside exo= outside phago = eat pino= drink
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Endocytosis
Some substances too large to be transported by transmembrane proteins; endo/exocytosis used for uptake and release of growth factors, antibodies, and other proteins, low density lipoprotein (contains cholesterol) **Endocytosis:** cells absorb molecules by engulfing them * area of plasma membrane surrounds a material forming a **vesicle** * **​**vesicle buds off from internal face of membrane * **pinocytosis:** cell engulfs liquid * **phagocytosis:** cell engulfs a solid * typically by **phagocytes** of immune system to ingest foreign particles/pathogens * **receptor-mediated endocytosis:** cell is targeting specific molecules
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Exocytosis
Membrane of intracellular vesicle fuses with plasma membrane * lipids or proteins bound for plasma membrane or secreted proteins * in some cases, release is controlled by **calcium ion signaling** **ex.** influx of Ca2+ ions into neurons leads to release of neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft * neurons release neurotransmitters via exocytosis
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Once a cell ingests a substance (endocytosis)
**Endosomes** are membrane bound organelles that function as sorting compartments * identify engulfed substances that should be reused in plasma membrane like receptor components vs those the cell needs internally or should be degraded **early endosomes:** are located close to plasma membrane, do most of sorting **late endosomes:** main role is delivering matrial to **lysosomes:** recycler of cell; highly acidic with special enzymes * For phagocytosis, **phagosomes** deliver pathogens to lysosomes
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Avogradros Number
6.022 x 1023 Number of units/atoms in one mole of a substance
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Multiplying exponents (scientific notation) Dividing in scientific notation Adding and subtracting them
Multiply front number, add exponents Divide front number, subtract exponents Manipulate decimals so that terms are to the same exponent and then add
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For triangles, cosθ = sinθ = tanθ=
cosθ= adjacent over hypotenuse sinθ = opposite over hypotenuse tanθ = opposite over adjacent
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Special Right Triangles 30-60-90 45-45
sin90 = 1 cos 90= 0 cos 0= 1 sin0 = 0
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Archaea
Unicellular, many are extremophiles * thrive in extreme tmp, pH, or salt conditions Use whatever energy source they can get their flagella on * organic compounds * ammonia * hydrogen gas * metal ions * photosynthesis
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Types of bacteria
Much more common than archaea; most in humans are commensal Categorized by shape: * **coccus:** sphere shaped * **bacillus:** rod shaped * **spirillum:** spiral shapped
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Pathogens:
Bacteria that are harmful to the body * harm host through different mechanisms * reproduce intracellularly or outside of host * secrete damaging toxins * Normally treated with antibiotics * **antibiotic resistance:** * **​**pump out drugs with efflux pumps * inactivating antimicrobial enzymes ex. E coli Staphylococcus aureus - multidrug resistance responsible for MRSA
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Types of Aerobes/Anaerobes
**obligate aerobes:** oxygen required for metabolism **anaerobes:** oxygen not required * **obligate anaerobes:** can't survive in presence of oxygen * **aerotolerant:** tolerate O2 * **facultative:** aerobic metabolism when available
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Prokaryotic cell structure
lack of membrane bound nucleus and organelles * bacterial DNA resides in **nucleoid** region of cytoplasm * Genetic material is single circular chromosome of dsDNA * \*transcription and translation occur simultaneously Plasmids **Cell wall:** provides structural support and extra layer of defense * rich in rigid polysaccharide called **peptidoglycan** * **​**can take up **gram stain**
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Plasmids
Many bacteria cantain smaller circular DNA fragments * non essential genes; an confer antibiotic resistance or code for **virulence factors:** enhance ability to spread/harm host
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Gram staining
Technique used to separate bacteria into two categories based on structure of cell walls **Gram positive:** thick, peptidoglycan rich cell wall traps stain **Gram negative:** thin layer of peptidoglycan followed by LPS * ex. E coli Antibiotics like **penicillin** target peptidoglycan wall and have trouble penetrating gram-negative outer membrane, makes them more difficult to treat than gram-positive * LPS is antigenic and capable of inducing a deadly innate immune response in humans
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Bacterial Respiration
Aerobic respiration w/o mitochondria * Electron transport chain is located on cell membrane * **endosymbiotic theory:** mitochondria originated when cyanobacterium was englufed by Eukaryotic cell
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Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic ribosome structure
Prokaryotic: 30S and 50S -\> 70S Eukaryotic: 40S and 60S -\> 80S **Svedberg units:** describe sedimentation rate Difference between ribosomes allow antibiotics to target bacterial ribosomes
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Flagella in eukaryotes vs. prokaryotes
Eukaryotic: composed of microtubules and whips back and forth to propel cell Prokaryotic flagella: rotate to propel cell forward * comprised of **filament, basal body** (responsible for rotation), and **hook** connects the two
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Bacterial reproduction
**Binary Fission:** 1. Circular chromosome replicated 2. Cell growth 3. New cell wall grows and segregates 4. Two chromosomes pulled towards either half of cell 5. Cell splits as quickly as 20 min, growth constrained by nutrient resources
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Bacterial 4 phases of growth
1. Lag phase- bacteria adapt to new environment 2. Exponential 3. Stationary- growth limited by nutrients 4. Death phase
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In some viruses, capsid is enclosed within a lipid envelope of phospholipids and proteins
Sensitive to light and heat Must be transmitted via bodily fluid ex. HIV
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Viral genomes
ssDNA, dsDNA, ssRNA, ds RNA ssRNA: * **positive sense** if they contain mRNA that can be translated to protein * **negative sense** if RNA is complementary to mRNA and must be copied into mRNA by viral enzyme **RNA replicase** prior to translation
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Retroviruses
Contain **reverse transcriptase** to transcribe RNA to DNA and integrate into host * used in PCR for amplification ex. HIV, responsible for AIDS, hard to treat because genome integrated with hosts * treated successfully w/ antiretroviral drugs that target reverse transcriptase
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Retrotransposons
Mobile elements that make up 40% of human genome
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Viral DNA vs Viral RNA
DNA: translocates to nucleus, trascribed by hosts RNA polymerase RNA: immediately translated to protein in cytoplasm or reverse transcribed to DNA
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Extrusion
Release of virions from host cell, leaves host cell intact (not lytic)
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Horizontal gene transfer in bacteria
Achieving genetic variability despite asexual reproduction Conjugation (fertility factor F+)(sex pilus)(major cause of antibiotic resistance) Transformation Transduction (bacteriophages)
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Bacteriophages
Infect bacteria, more complex structure Lytic- release lyses cell Lysogenic (integration into host genome) * creates **prophage/provirus** lies dormant in host until triggered by environmental signal * then switches to lytic cycle
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Antiviral mechanisms
Some target reverse transcriptase Target attachment to host cell Block assembly of new virions
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Viroids
Small simple RNA particles that infect plants Lacks capsid/envelope Binds complementary RNA sequence in plants to silence gene expression
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Prions
Misfoled proteins that cause other proteins to misfold and aggregate together, harming cell function * Responsible for **Creutzfeld-Jakob disease** * **​**fatal neurodegenerative disease transmitted by eating beef from cattle w/ mad cow disease * **Fatal familial insomnia and kuru**
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Mycobiome
Nonharmful fungi
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Pathogenic fungi
yeast infections, ringworm
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Parasitic organisms Why are they difficult to treat?
**Protozoa:** single celled parasites (eukaryotes) * carried by mosquitoes -\> malaria **Helminths:** multicellular worms **Ectoparasites:** multicellular, live outside host * fleas, lice Immune system mediates infections by eusinophils and IgE antibodies * parasites tricky to treat because eukaryotic, same machinary
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Restriction enzymes/ restriction endonucleases
Cleave DNA at specific sequences, DNAses Sequences that restriction enzymes look for have defining features: 4-8 bp long, symmetric/palindromic inverted repeats * Prokaryotic DNAses can act as defense against viruses * Some DNAses are nonspecific and cleave DNA wherever they can
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DNAse cleavage creates:
**Blunt ends:** small restriction enzymes **Sticky ends:** EcoR1 restriction enzyme Sticky ends more desirable because they can be ligated back with DNA ligase
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DNA recombination Vectors
Insert target sequence into "vector" (small DNA molecule that can transfer DNA into target cells by hijacking replication machinary and integrating itself) **Vectors:** * **plasmids:** derived from prokaryotes circular DNA that replicate independently * spliced, recombined, and introduced into bacteria * Gene sequence "insert" is synthesized with 2 restriction sites matching plasmid vector * **reporter gene:** in plasmid elicits visible phenotype change * **bacteriophage:** incorporate larger sequences Same techniques used for RNA if reverse transcriptase used
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DNA recombination steps
1. Synthesize gene seq insert with restriction sites 2. Digest insert and vector 3. Ligation of insert and vector 4. Treatment of bacteria w/ plasmid 5. Plasmid replication 6. Select for bacteria w/ plasmid
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Genetic engineering goals
1. _Mass protein production:_ insulin, vaccine components, inteferons, tumor necrosis factor 2. Alterations to genetic code
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Transgenic organisms: Knockout organisms
Genomes have been modified Organisms with 1+ genes deleted, can see which genes are necessary * ex. cystic fibrosis caused by single mutation that hinders CFTR gene **GMO:** genetically modificed in agriculture
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Independent vs. Dependent variables
Independent: what researcher manipulates (x) Dependent: what changes in response to x (y) * dependent cant occur before independent
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Confounding, mediating, and moderating variables
**Confounding:** affects both indep and dep variables; potentially obscures relationship b/w them * ex. cigarette smoking obscures relationship between coffee and cardiovascular disease * coffee drinkers smoke more cigs * cigs --\> CVD **Mediating variable:** explains counterintuitive relationships b/w indep and dep variables * ex. median household income --\> cancer mortality rate * mediated by availability of healthcare **Moderating variable:** modulates intensity of relationship * ex. workplace stress --\> anxiety/depression * moderated by exercise
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Operationalization
process of defining variables in measurable, practical ways
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Types of Studies
Experimental: researchers manipulate the world in some way Observational: researchers analyze pre-exisiting patterns of variation to determine relationships Quantitative: numerical measurements of variables Qualitative: verbal/open ended measurements of variables Mixed Method
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Experimental controls
**Negative controls:** don't receive the treatment/intervention of interest * placebo * crucial to demonstrate intervention effect **Positive controls:** receive a treatment known to induce outcome of interest * confirm adequacy and competency of procedure
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Experimental validity
Controls and experimental groups treating the same **randomization:** samples randomly allocated to control or treatment groups **blindness:** researchers don't know which sample is control/experimental when doing maintenence * **double blind:** neither participants nor researchers know who is in control group **randomized control trial:** participants randomized to treatment or control
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Observational design ## Footnote **cross sectional study:** **limitations:**
**cross sectional study:** measuring various stats among a set of people, looking for correlations * large samples * **study types** * **​opinion poll** * **surveys** * **correlational studies** limitations: * provide a limited snapshot of a certain population at a certain time, can't provide info on causality (correlation doesn't mean causation) * no info about how things change over time
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Observational Design Longitudinal designs
Multiple measurements over time _risk factors:_ independent variables associated with higher risk of negative outcome _protective factors:_ independent variables associated with lower risk of negative outcome _cohort studies:_ group of subjects assembled based on an organizing principle and followed up over time **prospective analysis:** data gathered moving forward **restrospective studies:** data from past
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Observational design ## Footnote **Case control studies**
Compare cases to controls **cases:** individuals with an outcome of interest * identifying any differences between the two groups might shed light * used in epidemiology to investigate cause of disease **case study:** report on a single case **case series**: multiple cases reported
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Observational designs strength of evidence
Strong: **meta analyses:** data from multiple studies combined, reanalyzed **systemic reviews:** assess outcomes of various studies **randomized controlled trials:** experimental **cohort studies** **case control** Weakest: **case studies/series**
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National Institute of Health 7 principles for Research Ethics
1. Research has social/clincal value 2. Research has scientific validity 3. Principle of fair subject selection * participants chosen based on relevance for study's goals 4. Principle of favorable risk-benefit ratio 5. Principle of independent review 6. Principle of informed consent 7. Respect for potential and enrolled participants
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Genetic screening
used to identify genetic predictors of various health outcomes
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Limits on genome-wide association studies
Statistical power is low due to all the potential relationships Effect size not large enough to motivate public health efforts
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Causality
Ultimate goal of research * basic factors for causality: * **association (correlation)** between variables * Establish that variation in the indep variable precedes variation in dep * Plausible mechanism through which possible cause could exert effect * Rule out possible mediating outcomes
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Social structure
Family, education, healthcare, economy, gov't and religion
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Sociological theories micro vs. macrosociology
No right or wrong theory, theories not mutually exclusive Micro is small scale, macro is large scale interactions
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Macrosociology Functionalism
Understanding structures and institutions based on their functions **manifest functions:** intended functions for institution **latent functions:** unintended functions that are positive **latent dysfunctions:** reinforces patterns of social inequality Could be a matter of opinion -\> AUTHORS TONE
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Macrosociology Conflict theory
Thought to have originated with Karl Marx but not associated with Marxism/Socialism Competition for resources between structures or groups * leads to conflicts and power differentials * doesn't necessary require conflict ex. resources --\> college --\> economic opportunity
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Microsociology Symbolic interactionism
How people interact with symbols * requires an interaction * **symbols:** something we assign meaning to * has a shared sense of meaning in society
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Social constructionism
Meaning of social structures/ concepts emerges from how we think and communicate about them ex. gender roles, love, patriotism \*Tends to be macrosociological when compared to symbolic interactionism Focuses on constructing the symbols
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Microsociology Rational choice theory
# Choose actions to maximize the likelihood of accomplishing certain goals ex. wanting intoxication, taking drugs How people make choices
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Microsociology: Social exchange theory
View social interactions as interchanges with costs and rewards ex. friendships: invest time and energy and receive benefits like support \*\* actual interactions
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Microsociology Feminist Theory
Goal of understanding and remedying gender injustices Through focus on lived experiences and objective data
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unintended consequences of Education
**hidden curriculum:** things you learn in educational setting that aren't part of official curriculum * values, norms, ways of interacting * positive or negative **segregation:** putting different things in different places * legal segregation of schools * still present in education systems due to uneven distribution of students based on race, ethnicity, poverty **stratification:** arranging things in layers * levels of socioeconomic status * people with higher status have more options for access to education system **teacher expectations:** may be based on stereotypes and may impact student performance
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Family kinship
Family defines early lives **kinship of descent:** shared ancestry **kinship of affinity:** based off marriage and adoption **primary kin:** related through very close bond: parent child, marriage, siblinghood **secondary kin:** primary kin of your primary kin **tertiary kin:** primary kin of your secondary or secondary of primary
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Family structure
Vary across cultures. change over time ex. divorce rates, same sex partners Violence and abuse can occur: physical, psychological, sexual, neglect
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Religion
Institution with strongest impact * function to replicate themselves over time and structure peoples lives Provide rituals, community, ethical frameworks, important life events **religiosity:** how religious a person considers themselves to be Generally focus on christianity as practiced in Europe
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Max Weber's Sociology of religion
Religios organizations exists on a spectrum **churches** (stable organized, bureaucratic) then **denominations** (diff interpretations, but same religious context) then **sects** (smaller dissident split off **cults:** small tightly controlled and isolated
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Religious modernizations
Cumulative impact of technological advance from last century * **secularization:** decreased religiosity * **fundamentalism:** literal, uncomprimising approach to religion
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Governement organizes society by **power and authority**
**Power:** literal ability to get things done and compel certain behaviors **Authority:** legitimacy and right of gov't to structure citizens lives
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Monarchy
Rulership/sovereignty is passed down in defined succession * constitutional monarchy - UK * absolute monarchy
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Authoritarianism
Citizens have little to no input into gov't * **soft authoritarianism:** have elections, limited choice of candidates * gov't minimizes its intrusion into citizens lives, but represses outward forms of dissent
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Totalitarianism
Gov't regulates every aspect of life, including citizens communication
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Democracy
gov't controlled by voting citizens * **direct:** citizens vote for laws themselves * **indirect (democratic republic):** citizens vote for representatives who then make laws
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Capitalism
Private ownership of property and companies
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Socialism
Collective ownership and distribution * relies on state regulation * recognizes private property
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Communism
More extreme version of socialism, no sectors of economy under private ownership
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Gov't/Economic trends
Communism tends to be implemented by authoritarian/totalitarian gov'ts Western European countries have implemented democratic socialism, allows private enterprise and market activity
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Capitalism
Usually democratic nations * Some authoritarian/totalitarian (especially fascists) states
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Fascism
form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy that rose to prominence in early 20th-century Europe
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Division of labor
Leads to specialization * Not all skills equally useful or demanded * High demand skills * highly specialized, higher wages * Low demand skills
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Medicalization
Treating medical conditions as social and cultural constructs * **addiction:** used to be thought as a personal problem, now a medical condition * **modern pregnancy care** * **​**cold, clinical, and alienating * leads to much lower death rates * **erectile dysfunction:** used to be seen as unfortunate part of aging, now a medical condition
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The "Sick Role"
A role that carries the rights and responsibilites of sick individuals in society * Reflects social consensus that being sick is not your fault * Sick people exempt from normal responsibilites Sick people should typically follow the instructions of their doctors to get better * exceptions: sometimes societies blame people for their illnesses especially those from lifestyle factors * diabetes, smokers, obesity Sick role works better. for acute illnesses than chronic conditions Sick role not consistent across cultures
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Medical Institutions
Hospitals: treat spectrum of conditions, inpatients Doctor's offices: non-hospitalized patients, outpatients Acute care clinics
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Medical ethics
Paternalism: doctor wants to do whats best for patient without informing them _Current paradigm of medical ethics_ * **Beneficence**: acting for patients benefit * **Nonmaleficence**: do no harm * **Respect for pt's autonomy:** pt's make decision even if contradcit medical advice * **Justice:** doctors provide care equally and fairly
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The Illness Experience
Aim to analyze illness as a social construct * how people experience becoming ill * the decision of whether to seek care * the experience of recovery ex. some people see illness as punishment, others as a challenge
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Epidemiology
Study of who gets illnesses and distribution patterns (by age, sex, location, behaviors) * first applied to infectious diseases * now all diseases
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Socioeconomic status
Influence on health outcomes Low SES populations have life expectancy up to 10 years shorter
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Status and roles
How we situate in groups **status:** any social category to identify people - very broad
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Achieved status, ascribed status, master status
**achieved status:** status one works to attain, subjective **ascribed status:** status assigned involuntarily, not based on actions **master status:** status so dominant in someones life it crowds out other statuses
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Role strain Role conflict Role exit Role engulfment
**Role strain:** strain brought on by multiple responsibilities from one role **Role conflict:** difficulty balancing multiple different roles **Role exit:** process of disengaging from a role **Role engulfment:** expansion of a role to dominate ones life * closely related to what one does with energy and time
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Primary groups Secondary groups Peer groups Family groups In groups Out groups Reference groups
**Primary groups:** long lasting with deep bonds, _not always positive_ **Secondary groups:** short lasting and more superficial **Peer groups:** people often similar in age, status, background, interests, usually self selected **Family groups:** people defined by genetic relationships and/or marriage/adoption **In groups:** categories someone identifies as a member of **Out groups:** categories someone doesn't identify as a member of * stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination **Reference groups:** groups we compare ourselves to (evaluate self w/ reference to that group)
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Dyads (2 people) less stable than
Triads (3 people)
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Networks
Relationships b/w people/groups
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Organizations Coercive, normative, utilitarian
Subset of groups * Specific structure * Defined rules for entering/exiting * Organization will exist once members are gone **Coercive organizations:** people don't choose to be apart of **Normative organizations:** people join out of some shared ideal/ethical goal **Utilitarian organization:** people join to make money
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Types of Organizations Bureaucracies Ideal bureaucracy?
Rational, well organized, impersonal and typically large administrative systems ex. gov't, hospital, schools, courts Studied by **Max Weber** in late 19th century _Ideal:_ * Heirarchical * Well defined roles, chain of command * Organized by specialization * Run impersonally * Recruitment is technical, merit based * Predictable career paths * Politically neutral
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Structural Organizations Anarchist Collective Democratic governance Iron law of oligarchy
**Anarchist collective:** group w/o bosses with group-based, consensus oriented decision making **Democratic governance:** flat organizational structures that minimize heirarchies **Iron law of oligarchy:** group starts with democratic decision making will ended up dominated by small group
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McDonaldization
Organizational approach that focuses on efficiency, calculability, uniformity, technological control
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Emotional signaling
How we interact with each other; learned in childhood via socialization * subconcious level: words, tone, facial expression, body language, text * Physical stimuli and body language that communicate emotions Difficulty observung emotional signals is sign of autism spectrum disorder Signaling varies in cultures and b/w different groups
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emotional signaling experimental findings
Male faces more likely to be interpreted as anger, females as sadness Womaen may be more sensitive to emotional signals
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_Self Presentation_ Self disclosure Managing appearances Ingratiation Aligning actions Altercasting
**Self disclosure:** what you disclose to others about yourself **Managing appearances:** groom, dress, and act **Ingratiation:** attempt to influence another person by becoming more likeable **Aligning actions:** presenting your actions in a light that makes them more appealing in a certain setting **Altercasting:** project an identity onto someone and then create an expectation that they should act the way you want * ex. you're premed so you should ...
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Front stage self vs. back stage self
How we present ourselves in front of audience vs. more authentic self, no longer in front of audience
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Social Behaviors Attraction
Sexual and friendly attraction * physical attractiveness: a social construct, also objectively measurable correlates like facial symmetry * attractive traits indicate suitability as a mate **Proximity:** more likley to be attracted to people we see daily, more exposure effect **Similarity:** more likely to be attracted to similar people
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Social Behavior Aggression Impulsive behaviors regulated and restrained by
Defending against threats and obtaining greater access to resources * used to reinforce and maintain social heirarchies * testosterone levels in both sexes Impulsive behaviors regulated and restrained by **prefrontal cortex** * stem from emotional arousal mediated by limbic system Also shaped by ones personal experiences Molded by society norms and expectations
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Social Behavior Attachment
Bonds that form b/w children and their caregivers * consistent, responsive caregiver leads to **secure attachment** **ambivalent attachment:** inconsistent caregiver, intense distress when they leave **avoidant attachment:** neglectful relationship, child doesn't care **disoriented attachment:** abusive caregiver, hesistant contradictory and confused behavior
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Social Behavior Altruism
Helping others at some cost to yourself * puzzling behavior, rational choice theory * Structured gift giving
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Social Behavior Social Support
Emotional, informational, tangible/material support, companionship support Positive health outcomes
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Biological explanation for social behaviors in animals
**Foraging:** how animals search for food; behaviors often learned, economic models can help make sense **Mating:** animals have wide range of ways in engaging in courtship, copulating, and raising offspring * **mate choice:** can be random, some respond to phenotypic signals (for genetic fitness or seemingly random (Fisherian selection)) **Game theory:** math that deals with decision making in gamelike scenarios * ex. **prisoners dillema:** whoever cooperates gets off, if both do they go to jail, if both don't nothing happens **Altruism:** evolution that focuses on the gene, not the individual * share genotypes with relatives * **inclusive fitness:** natural selection operates at the group level
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Social facilitation
People perform tasks better in group setting when psychological arousal is higher * when situation gets too stressful, performance breaks down
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Social Loafing
People work less hard in a group setting * others pick up slack * often not deliberate conscious choice
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Bystander effect
People tend not to offer help to someone if others present * diffusion of responsibility in a crowd * model our behavior based on those around us * social etiquette case study: Kitty Genovese murder 1964
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Deindividualization
Less of sense of self awareness ina large group due to psychological arousal * lower perceived responsibility - dance clubs, raves * contributing factors * anonymity * diffused responsibility
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Group polarization vs. groupthink Groupthink- pyschologist, associated with what historic event
**Group polarization:** group of people will arrive at final opinions that are more extreme than the initial positions of the individual members * initial opinions get amplified * "echo chambers" effects social media, people interact with similar people * politics * _contributing factors:_ * _​informational influence :_ people in a group are more likely to press points in line with dominant viewpoint * _normative influence:_ our desire to be socially accepted, affirmed or admired within a group * \*\*Doesn't have to be irrational, doesn't require decision-making **Groupthink:** irrational decisions made in groups due to pressures towards harmony and individual conformity * psychologist Irving Janis proposed groupthink to explain Nazi invasion * _characteristics:_ * _illusion of invulnerability_: no serious harm will come to group * _illusion of morality:_ unbending belief in the moral righteousness of the groups cause * _illusion of unanimity:_ group assumes the majority of opinions in the group are unanimous * _self censorship:_ members who disagree dont share opinions * _pressure of dissenters:_ pressre not to contradict the majority * _collective rationalization:_ group finds reasons to ignore warnings and avoid reconsidering actions * _excessive stereotyping:_ negative views of outside opinions * _mind guards:_ certain members filer info that could destabilize consensus * always involve irrational decisions made by group
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Conformity
Someones behavior, beliefs, or thinking changes to line up with perspectives of others * someone simply behaving the same way as a a group is not necessarily conformity * convergence * _Internalization or conversion_: genuine change in someone's beliefs
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Two kinds of compliance Identification, Asch experiment Foot in the door, Door in the face, lowball
**Compliance:** person conforms but internally dissents * not the same as compliance to requests * **identification:** persons belief change only only in presence of group * **Asch experiment:** each subject shown a card with a line and another w/ 3 lines * which line is same length as first card * subjects repeat incorrect answers **Compliance:** responses to requests from someone with no power to enforce the request * marketing and sales pitches are request related compliance * tactics: * **foot in the door:** making a small request followed by a large one * **door in the face:** making a large request you know will be rejevted followed by a small more reasonable one * **lowball:** offer low price and raise it at last minute
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Obedience
Change in behavior in response to a direct request from someone with power to enforce it
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Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)
Students either guards or prisoners * prisoners treated harshly by guards * prisoners showed real suffering and guards showed sadistic tendencies * showed how people readily conform to social roles
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Social Norms Formal Informal Taboos
Rules, spoken or unspoken, that regulate behavior, beliefs, attitudes, and values of members of society * **Formal:** encoded somewhere, penalties for violation * **Informal:** not written, expectations with no penalties * **Folkways:** insignificant informal norms that involve small details * **Mores:** informal norms, incur severe disapproval when violated * **Taboos:** even more restrictive norms that generate extreme disapproval * ex. incest * blur line between formal and informal
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Social control Sanctions Peer pressure
The way norms are taught, enforced, and perpetuated * More general phenomenon * **sanctions:** punishment/negative consequences for violating a social norm or reqards for following one * **peer pressure:** desire for approval or fear of disapproval
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Deviance
When someone doesn't conform to the norms
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Anomie
lack of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group.
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Types of deviance: (not mutually exclusive) Differential Association Theory Labeling Approach Primary deviance Secondary Deviance Strain Theory
**Differential Association Theory:** views deviance as behavior that is learned socially * draws from symbolic interactionism **Labeling Approach:** behavior affected by being labeled a deviant **Primary deviance:** deviant acts committed before being labeled **Secondary Deviance:** deviant acts committed after being labeled **Strain Theory:** social and economic pressures towards deviance
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Socialization Agents of socialization
How we learn informal and formal norms by interacting with other people/institutions * agents: * family * educational system * mass media * peers * workplace
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Fads
New behavior becomes extremely popular, then fades
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Mass hysteria
Irrational fear of a perceived threat, verging on the point of a collective delusion
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Riots
Spontaneous episodes of civil disorder * classic example of **deindividuation**
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Percent Yield Percent Error
Actual/theoretical x 100 Actual -Theoretical /Theoretical x 100
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ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate - cellular energy - Protein synthesis, glucose metabolism, intracellular transport * nucletotide adenine and ribose sugar * form **nucleoside adenosine** * 3 phosphate groups * alpha, beta, gamma * gamma is unstable, ATP hydrolysis
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ATP Hydrolysis ADP phosphorylation
ATP loses phosphate group and is hydrolyzed to ADP * Addition of a water molecule * Releases large amount of energy, highly favorable and spontaneous ADP phosphorylation unfavorable, nonspontaneous
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ATP formation
Substrate level phosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation
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Substrate level phosphorylation
Occurs during glycolysis and TCA, involves transfer of phosphate group from a glycolytic intermediate to ADP * Enzyme catalyzed and coupled with favorable spontaneous reaction to help drive forward the nonspontaneous phosphorylation * ex. * **_\*\*\*final step of glycolysis_**, ADP phosphorylation paired with exergonic cleavage of **phosphoenol pyruvate by pyruvate kinase** yields pyruvate and ATP * \*\*\*also occurs in citric acid cycle, except forms guanisine triphosphate GTP
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
Vast majority of ATP in eukaryotes * Redox reactions involving NADH and FADH2 electron carriers that feed electrons taken from glycolytic substrates and citric acid intermediates into ETC * As electrons passed through transport chain, protons pumped from mito matrix into intermembrane space * **electrochemical proton gradient** * Protons return to matrix by diffusing through ATP synthase, forms ATP \*\*Can only occur in presence of oxygen, terminal electron accptor of transport chain - Substrate level phosphorylation doesn't req oxygen
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Guanosine triphosphate
Produced in citric acid cycle - Powers biological reactions involved in signaling cascades and protein synthesis
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High energy bonds in molecules besides ATP and GTP
Thioester bond of Acetyl CoA Bonds in NADH and FADH2
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Electrochemical cells are batteries Involve
Redox reactions
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Redox reactions are the
transfer of electrons (OIL RIG) **Reduction:** gain of electrons, more bonds to hydrogen **Oxidation:** loss of electrons, fewer bonds to hydrogen, more to oxygen When an atom (usually carbon) gains a bond to oxygen, oxidation has occured Alkynes most oxidated, alkanes most reduced
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NAD+ and NADH
When NAD+ is converted to NADH, it gains two things: First, a charged hydrogen molecule (H+) and next, two electrons. As electrons are negatively charged, the combination of the positively charged NAD+ and H+, coupled with two electrons, effectively cancel each other out and neutralize the resulting NADH molecule. This is why NADH does not have a "+" sign next to it.
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Electron Carriers
NADH and FADH2 * Reduced versions * Transfer electrons to protein complexes of ETC * When reduced, coupled with an oxidation of a different molecule FADH is semi reduced form Electron carriers are formed in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and beta-oxidation
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Electron transport chain
Electron carriers are formed in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and beta-oxidation * Then they're oxidized by protein complexes in inner mitochondrial membrane * Pass their electrons to protein complexes which act as pumps, use energy gained from electron transfers to drive hydrogen ions (protons) against their conc gradient Proton gradient powers oxidative phosphorylation via ATP synthase Final electron accpetor in ETC is a diatomic oxygen which is reduced to water
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Reduction potential **E°**
Some atoms/molecules want to gain electrons (be reduced) and some want to be oxidized **E°:** how bad an atom/molecule wants to be reduced \*\* the more positive the **reduction potential**, the more a substance likes to be reduced * tells us electric potential difference that results from the substance being reduced * **electric potential difference:** not the same thing as energy; how energetically favorable reduction is
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Reduction potential and redox in ETC
When each protein complex _in sequence_ is reduced, it oxidizes the complex that comes before it * each successive complex has more **positive reduction potential, energy is released** * **​**wants to be reduced miore * energy used to pump protons
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3 biomolecules in human body that can be broken down for energy
Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins (to a lesser extent)
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Glucose monomer is cells predominant source of fuel because
Can be easily stored as glycogen and its catabolism liberates lots of ATP via aerobic respiration * under anaerobic conditions, glyolysis produces way less ATP
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Glucose transport
Hydrophilic -\> readily diffuse in bloodstream * too large and polar to diffuse across plasma membrane * special transmembrane transporters needed * different types for diff purposes
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GLUT1 transporter
Nearly all tissues, especially fetal, erthyroctyes, and cancer cells Baseline cellular uptake, expression increases when glucose is low
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GLUT2 transporter
Liver, kidney, and pancreatic cells Bidirectional transport for glycolysis, glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis uptake and export
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GLUT 3 transporter
Neurons, placenta High glucose affinity, transports glucose into cell when when extracellular conc is low
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GLUT4 transporter
Skeletal and cardiac muscle, adipose tissue Storage as glycogen or triglycerides, upregulated by glucose and insulin Insulin sensitive Type 2 diabetes- GLUT4 becomes insensitive to insulin, stops being expressed at normal insulin levels * difficult to correct blood sugar spikes
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Resonance in peptide bonds causes:
Planar geometry Restricted rotation of peptide bonds Exceptional stability of amides
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Conjugation (pi systems)
3+ pi orbitals align with each other, electrons delocalize throughout Absorbs UV light, easily detected by UV sprectroscopy
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Aromaticity
Electron delocalization **Huckels rule:** 4n +2π electrons * pyridine, pyrimidine, purine all aromatic * imidazole * pyrrole
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Work
Something accomplished using energy * measured in Joules * 1 J = 1 N x m **W = F d or W = Fdcos****θ** **W = P ∆V**
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Mechanical advantage
Using a mechanical apparatus to perform work using less force * inclined plane, pulley, seesaw * for ramps, incline length /incline height gives the amount of force increased by just going vertically **Winput = Woutput** Increasing distance decreases force put in, increases force put out
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Power
**W/t (J/s) Watts** * the faster a system can do more work, the more powerful it is
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Energy
Capacity of an object to do work **E = KE + PE** * all obj in motion have kinetic energy * **KE = 1/2mv2 Joules** * mass in kg
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Potential energy is stored in an object, comes in many forms
**PEgrav= mgh** **PEelastic=** energy stored in obj due to compression * **1/2kx2**
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Conservation of Energy
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, only changed * all energy creation is conversion from another form **closed system:** no energy transfer (as heat)
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Nonconservative force
Any force that causes energy to be lost from a system to the environment - Friction and air resistance
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PEi + KEi = PEf + KEf
ghi + 1/2vi2 = ghf + 1.2vf2 (mass cancels)
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Work Energy Theorem
W = ∆E Positive work= work done on an object by its environment, increases objects energy Negative work= work done by an object on environment, decreases objects energy
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Consciousness
Awareness that we have of our surroundings, internal states and ourselves Medical: humans aren't always conscious * can vary in terms of degree and quality * impaired by head trauma, sleeplessness, and substance abuse
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Levels of awareness Alertness (what brain structures), tiredness and fatigue
**Alertness:** increased awareness * important brain structures: reticular formation and reticular activating system * **reticular formation:** complex network of neuron clusters **Tiredness and fatigue:** decreased awareness **sleep:** temporarily and easily reversed loss of consciousness Deeper unconscious is not easily reversed **Coma:** lost consciousness, doesn't react normally to stimuli, doesn't move voluntarily, is not in normal sleep/wake cycle
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Sleep
Crucial to our ability to live Chronic low-level sleep deprivation is associated with a range of bad outcomes, poor cognitive perormance, increased risk of obesity, heart disease, diabetes
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Measuring sleep
Electroencaphelogram (EEG): brain activity EMG: muscle activity EVG: eye activity **Polysomnography:** sleep study measuring multiple physiological parameters
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Sleep Alpha vs Beta waves
Fully awake: **beta waves, low frequency, high amplitude** **Alpha waves:** relaxed, calm, meditation, lower frequency
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REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
* Quick bursts of eye movement * Similar brain waves to beta/alpha **atonia:** little muscle movement * irregular breathing, heart rate (interupted homeostasis) * Majority of dreaming REM stages get longer as night progresses Greater total REM sleep = more restful **REM rebound:** catch up on REM after missing sleep
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Non- REM sleep 3 stages
**Stage 1:** * **theta waves:** low frequency and low amplitudes * slow eye movement, light sleep **Stage 2:** * **theta waves with** **K-complexes:** high amplitude bursts * **sleep spindles:** occ high freq bursts * eye motion stops, heart rate and breathing slows **Stage 3** * **delta waves:** high amplitude * deep sleep (slow wave) * memory processing and rest
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Sleep cycle times for adults and children
Adults have 90 minute cycles, children have 50 minute cycles
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Regulating sleep Circadian rhythm Drowsiness and wakefullness come from?
**Circadian rhythm:** 24 hr sleep/wake cycles **Pineal gland -\> melatonin -\>** drowsiness **Adrenal cortex -\> cortisol -\>** wakefulness
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Insomnia
Difficulty falling asleep
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Narcolepsy
Excessive daytime sleepiness * abnormal REM sleep * **cataplexy:** loss of muscle control, sleep paralysis * hypnagogic hallucinations
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Sleep apnea
Airway obstruction during sleep
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Dyssomnias Parasomnias
Disorders impairing ability to fall/stay asleep Parasomnias: disorders involving abnormal behavior while asleep * sleepwalking (somnabulism) * night terrors - sleeper suddenly plunged into fight or flight response * nightmares
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Dream Content (Freud)
**Manifest:** surface level details **Latent:** underlying meaning **Wish fulfillment:** resolution of respressed conflict
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Activation/synthesis model (dreams)
Neurons activate during REM and synthesize experience
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Problem-solving theory (dreams)
Dreams as a way of processing/resolving real world problems
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Cognitive Theory (dreams)
Dreams are a visualization of our cognitive processes
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Hypnosis
Hypnotist induces a hyper suggestive state in a subject * extremely responsive to certain suggestions even after session * Receives considerable skepticism
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Meditation
Has been a part of religious traditions * quieting the mind, focusing attnetion * Beginners experience alpha waves, more experienced practitioners have theta waves Included in wellness approaches
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Consciouness altering drugs Caffeine
**Caffeine-** stimulant, increase activity in CNS * mimic sympathetic NS response, fight or flight Antagonizes (blocks) adenosine (sleepiness) receptors
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Addiction
Pattern of compulsive behavior that repeatedly engages reward pathway * behavior persists despite negative consequences * **dependence:** absence of drug causes withdrawal symptoms \*biggest difference is compulsion and negative consequences **tolerance:** heavy users need more of a drug for same effect
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Stimulants
Nicotine Amphetamines MDMA Cocaine
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Nicotine
highly addictive 15% of adults smoke
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Amphetamines
Increased energy and alterness * concetration and focus * appetite reduction * mood swings, psychosis Medication for ADHD
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MDMA
Ecstacy or molly * empathy and pleasure * energy, focus, appetite reduction * Promotes serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine release * depletes serotonin reserves
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Cocaine
Strong stimulant, blocks serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine reuptake causing buildup in brain * often inhaled, processed to smokable form of crack
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Depressants
Reduce activity in central NS; psychological and physiological effects, lowers heart rate, blood pressure, etc Alcohol Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines Opioids Endorphins Hallucinogens Marijuana
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Alcohol
Enhances action of **GABA receptors** (main inhibitory neurotransmitter) * makes neurons fire less often, slowing brain down * Low doses reduce conscious inhibitions and planning activity Higher doses affect speech, motor function, cognition, memory, etc. * **anterograde amnesia:** blackouts, inability to create new memories Long term alcohol use elevates risk of cardiovascular disease/cancer Once dependent on alcohol, stopping can lead to unpleasant or fatal withdrawal * hallucination anxiety seizures
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Alcohol overdose
Breathing stops --\> death ## Footnote **acute alcohol intoxication**
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Korsakoff syndrome
Associated with chronic alcoholism * **anterograde amnesia:** events starting after syndrome develops * **retrograde amnesia:** events before can't recall **confabulation:** invented memories
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Barbiturates and benzodiazepines
Increase GABA receptor (inhibitory) activity * Treat anxiety and insomnia * HIgh risk of overdose, addiction, and withdrawals * Don't mix with alcohol
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Opioids symptoms, types
Cause sedation, sleepiness, respiratory depression Pain relief, euphoria Bind opioid receptors on neurons **morphine:** derived from opium poppy **heroin:** synthetic morphine derivative * makes you feel heroic * thought to be non addictive Codeine, hydrocodone, oxycodone, fentanyl
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Endorphins
Produced by body, naturally interact with opioid receptors Block pain, induce euphoria * runners high * morphine and heroin are extremely potent endorphin agonists
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Hallucinogens
Distort perceptions, enhance sensation, promote introspection * LSD, ketamine, peyote, psilocybin, PCP * Complex mechanisms
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Marijuana
THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) is the psychoactive component of marijuana * Bind with cannabinoid receptors in brain * Body naturally produces endocannabinoids * processes of appetite, mood and pain sensation CBD: non psychoactive cannabinoid in marijuna Complex profile of effects- stimulant, depressant, hallucinogenic
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Addiction
Compulsive behavior that triggers reqard pathway and is repeated pathologically despite negative consequences * **mesolimbic pathway =** reward pathway **prefrontal cortex:** decision making **nucleus accumbens:** dopamine uptake and motivation; associated with otivation and reinforcement learning **amygdala:** memory and emotion **ventral tegmental area:** dopamine release
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Dependence
Someone requires a drug to function normally * more stable than addiction, without the compulsivity * discontinuing may lead to withdrawal
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Attention
ability to direct our awareness to a single aspect of external stimuli
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Selective attention
Can be thought of as a spotlight **focus:** full attention **fringe area:** no attention **margin:** partial attention
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Donald Broadbent - attention
Basic sensory info enters a **sensory buffer** * from the sensory buffer, the mind selects something to focus on and process * other info decays Dichotic listening task- only pay attention to audo from one side of the headphones **shadowing:** repeating words instantly, no memory component We process info we are focuing on much more than other info
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Cocktail Party Effect
Can "tune in" to a particular stimulus, like a name being said from across the room Background info is processed to some degree even if not the center of focus
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Treisman Model
Unattended info is _attenuated_ (reduced in intensity) * intense/important info can come to attention * explains cocktail party effect
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Inattentional Blindness
Direct attention causes people to miss things happening in the background - Invisible gorilla experiment
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Change Blindness
Failure to notice changes that take place
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Unattended Stimuli
Color and design might subconsciously affect our mood and behavior
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Multitasking Can we do it? What happens in our brain when we do? Simultaneous or sequential attention
Most multi tasking is sequential attention (jumping back and forth) * Might perceive it as simultaneous attention because the switching happens quickly Multitasking degrades one's ability to perform complex tasks in comparison to in isolation We have a certain capacity for attention that we allocate among tasks - proposed by **Daniel Kahneman**
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Allport's module reesource theory
Attention comes from distinct, specialized modules of the brain Multitasking easier with different types of tasks
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Controlled processing
Conscious focus on a task * skills often start out requiring controlled processing
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Automatic processing
Unconscious work on a task, "autopilot" * with practice, skills can become automatically processed * Requires less attention, allows for more multitasking
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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 3 types
1. Predominantly inattentive * not paying close attention to details * Trouble sustaining attention to details * Easily distracted 2. Predominantly hyperactive * impulsive 3. Combined
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Information processing model Contrasts what model?
Mind is a computer that receives data, processes some of it, then decides what to do * contrasts behaviorism: asserted only behavior can be studied scientifically
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Jean Piaget - developmental psychologist of 20th century ## Footnote **_1st developmental stage:_**
Proposed stages of childhood **_1st developmental stage:_** _sensorimotor_ * birth to 2 y/o * interact with world through processing sensory input and engaging in motor activities **Object permanence:** things dont go away when you stop seeing them **Circular reactions:** repitition of accidental or reactional actions **Stranger anxiety (8 or 9 months):** strangers provoke intense worry
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Jean Piagets developmental stage 2
**Preoperational stage:** 2 to 7 * represent objects symbolically with words/images **egocentrism:** difficulty imaging the world from the perspective of others **centration:** tendency to focus on a single property/parameter ex. taller grass means more water lack of **conservation:** same amount of substance is preserved in different shapes Symbolic thought but minimal abstract reasoning
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Jean Piagets developmental stage 3
**Concrete Operational Stage- 7 to 11** * Develop an understanding of conservation * Loss of egocentrism * Develop logical reasoning skills * Perform better at inductive rather than deductive tasks
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Jean Piagets developmental stage 4
**Formal Operational Stage: 11-16** Abstract logic Can handle hypotheticals, reason abstractly, and make nuanced moral judgment * nuanced: subtle shades of meaning or expression **Schema:** cognitive framework that organizes info about things that one perceives in the outside world, with implications for the actions that can be taken in response ex. encounter cow that is yellow; either cant be a cow = **assimilation** or cows can be different colors **accomodation**
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Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence
**fluid:** problem solving skills that can be applied to new situations without any reliance on previous knowledge **crystallized intelligence:** ability to deploy one's knowledge and skills to solve problems
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Age Dementia hepatic encephalopathy
Cognitive performance an decline with age **dementia:** cognitive decline and memory impairments interfere with a person's ability to function in the world * multiple symptoms with multiple causes * causes include Alzheimer's disease (accumulation of B-amyloid plaques), tiny brain bleeds, etc. **hepatic encephalopathy:** liver can no longer effectively remove toxins which impacts brain function
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**Trial and error**
Try different options and see what works * reflects lack of conceptual understanding, used when we have the timeresources to explore many possible solutions Modern drug design Thomas Edison
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Algorithm
Involves applying a fixed set of steps * designed with preparation and insight * Application requires no conceptual understanding of the problem Very specific instructions ex. having a routine for solving physics problem but not understanding conceptually
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Deductive reasoning
Top down Applying general principles to a specific situation
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Inductive reasoning
Bottom up Successive observations extrapolated to identify general principles * vulnerable to overgeneralizations
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Analogies Problem solving
Used to solve a porblem similar to one we've seen before * closely related to intuition
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Intuition
Gut sense of how to solve a problem * corresponds to analogies that we aren't consciously aware of
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Mental set
The framework that we use for conceptualizing a problem and trying to solve it
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Fixation Functional fixedness
Getting stuck in existing ways of thinking about things Functional: tendency to see objects as only having a certain function
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Belief perserverance
Maintaining or strengthing beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence
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Cognitive processes can be impeded by
**cognitive biases:** systemic, generally subconscious patterns of thought that skew reasoning
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Confirmation bias
Reasoning in a way that favors info supporting our preexisting conclusions/beliefs ex. more likely to notice news we agree with
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Cell Cycle two parts:
Interphase Mitosis