3

Question 1

Why are there 2 phases of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway if the oxidative phase produces both NADPH and ribose 5-phosphate?

Answer 1

Some cells don’t need both of these products, only one

• ex. Liver cells and adipocytes need lots of NADPH but not ribose 5-phosphate, not constantly replicating their DNA

Oxidative phase produces a set ratio

Ribulose 5-phosphate gets shunted into non oxidative phase

Question 2

Non-oxidative phase of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Answer 2

Recylces Ribulose 5-phosphate back to the oxidative phase (into G6P)

• 1. Begins with 6 molecules of Ribose-5-phosphate
• 2. Get converted into 5 molecules of Ribose 6-phosphate
• 3. Easily converted to glucose 6-phosphate

Also produces glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which can enter glycolysis

Question 3

Diabetes Mellitus

Answer 3

Metabolic disorder marked by improper glucose uptake by cells and high blood glucose levels

• can lead to CVD, sudden weight loss, chronic kidney disease, impaired eyesight
• 30 million+ americans (10% of population)

Body fails to produce insulin (reuptake of blood glucose into cells)

Question 4

Role of Insulin

What is insulin produced by and where?

What kind of hormone?

Answer 4

Peptide hormone that causes reuptake of glucose into cells from bloodstream

• Produced by Beta cells in the pancreas
  
  • ​released into bloodstream when glucose levels are high, tells cells to absorb it

Question 5

How does pancreatic insulin release work?

Where is insulin stored?

Answer 5

Glucose enters pancreatic beta cells through special transporter protein called GLUT2

• once inside, glucose proceeds through glycolysis and pyruvate products enter citric acid cycle
  
  • causes ATP:ADP ratio to increase

High ATP levels cause an ATP-sensitive potassium channels to slam shut, building up potassium in cell

• reduces electric potential difference across cell membrane, causing voltage gated calcium channels to open allowing Ca in the cell

Causes Endoplasmic Reticulum to open its own calcium channels releasing more Ca ions into cytoplasm

• insulin is stored in vesicles in the plasma membrane
  
  • Once cytoplasmic calcium reaches a certain level, vesicles fuse with plasma membrane and release

Question 6

Insulin release from pancreatic B cell summary

Answer 6

Glucose is used to produce ATP

Causes a potassium buildup that triggers an influx of Calcium

Calcium is the stimulus for insulin release from secretory vesicles

Question 7

What is calcium used for

Answer 7

Pancreatic insulin release, muscle contraction

Question 8

Stimulants of insulin release

(Don’t need to know)

Answer 8

• High blood glucose levels

- Acetylcholine: main neurotransmitter of parasympathetic NS

• Arginine and Leucine amino acids
• Pancreatic beta cells stimulated by digestive enzyme cholecystokinin

Question 9

Inhibition of Insulin release

Answer 9

Norepinephrine- stress hormone inhibits insulin, FIGHT OR FLIGHT

• increases blood glucose levels

Question 10

Insulin responsive tissues

Do all cells need insulin to get glucose? which don’t?

Answer 10

Body cells that express receptors for insulin that insulin can interact with

• Skeletal, cardiac muscle and fat cells

Insulin binds to receptors, activating GLUT4 transporters which fuse with membrane allowing glucose to move into the cell

**NOT all cells depend on insulin to get glucose

• Liver and brain cells require so much that they get it themselves from the bloodstream

Question 11

Different effects of insulin in the body

Answer 11

Glucose uptake

Glycogen metabolism

Lipid metabolism

Protein metabolism

Question 12

Insulin affect on glycogen metabolism

Answer 12

1. Upregulates glycogen synthesis in liver
2. Inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Question 13

Insulin affect on lipid metabolism

Answer 13

1. Promotes lipid storage by increasing triglyceride synthesis

• tells adipocytes to absorb more fatty acids from lipoproteins circulating in the blood
  
  • links them with glycerol

2. Opposes breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acid components by downregulating lipolysis

Question 14

Insulin affect on protein metabolism

Answer 14

1. Insulin prevents proteolysis
2. Insulin absorbs amino acids to build new proteins

Stimulates protein synthesis

Question 15

Type 1 Diabetes

How is it triggered?

What is the correction

Answer 15

Immune system destroys pancreatic Beta cells

• body can’t produce any insulin or to a lesser extent

Genetic risk factors, onset also triggered by environmental factors

**Require synthetic insulin to survive

Question 16

Type 2 Diabetes

Answer 16

Body loses the ability to respond to insulin

• insulin resistance
  
  • ​Blood glucose levels too high

Brought on by lifestyle factors: obesity, stress, poor diet, lack of exercise

Can often recover in early stages with lifestyle changes, but may eventually need synthetic insulin as well

Question 17

Role of Glucagon

Answer 17

Opposite of insulin

• Peptide hormone synthesized in pancreas by ALPHA CELLS

Secreted when too little glucose in blood –> actually respond to low insulin levels

• high insulin levels inhibit glucagon production + release

Binds to glucagon receptors; increases blood glucose conc

Question 18

Affect of Glucagon on Glycogen metabolism

Answer 18

Promotes glycogenolysis and gluconeogenosis

Inhibits glycogenesis

Question 19

Effect of Glucagon on lipid metabolism

Answer 19

Glucagon promotes lipolysis: triglyceride breakdown

• activates protein kinase A which activates hormone sensitive lipases in adipose tissue

Increases fatty acid conc in blood

• glycerol can also be used for energy in liver and kidneys

Question 20

Effect of glucagon on protein metabolism

Answer 20

Inhibits protein synthesis and allows proteins to be broken down

• amino acids can be taken up by liver cells for new glucose molecules via gluconeogenesis

Question 21

More stable nucleotide pairing? Why?

Answer 21

Cytosine and guanine, 3 H-bonds instead of 2

Question 22

Nucleotides are joined by

Answer 22

Phosphodiester bonds

Sugar phosphate backbone

Question 23

Is RNA or DNA more stable and why

Answer 23

RNA is less stable, only one strand and OH groups causes instability

• exception: RNA hairpin loops, double stranded RNA viruses

Question 24

What is “Melting temp T_m” of DNA

Answer 24

Temp that 50% of strands are denatured, DNA with more G-C bonds have higher Tm

• use heat or chemical (like urea)

Question 25

Annealing

Answer 25

Reverse of denaturing DNA where complementary bases bond again

Question 26

DNA has grooves: major and minor

Answer 26

Binding sites for transcription factors

Question 27

B-DNA

A-DNA

Z-DNA

Answer 27

B-DNA: most common conformation discovered by Watson and Crick; 10.5 base pairs per double helix turn

A-DNA: tighter, more condensed

Z-DNA: left handed, less condensed

Question 28

Central Dogma

Answer 28

DNA ==> transcription ==> RNA ==> translation ==> protein

Question 29

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase

Answer 29

DNA is source of heritable info

• Viruses incubated with radioactive sulfur (protein) and phophorus (DNA)
  
  • ​DNA was passed onto bacteria

Question 30

Messenger RNA mRNA

Answer 30

Template to synthesize protein

Question 31

Heterogenous Nuclear RNA (hnRNA)

Answer 31

Precursor to mRNA

Question 32

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Answer 32

Transfers amino acids to growing polypeptide chain

• unique clover leaf structure
• recognizes specific codons on mRNA to incorporate amino acids they code for into the protein

Question 33

Ribosomal rRNA

Answer 33

Synthesized in nucleolus, essential role in translation

• some act as ribozymes (enzymes)

Question 34

small interfering RNA (siRNA) and miRNA inhibit

Answer 34

Gene expression (production of proteins)

Question 35

Reverse transcriptase enzyme

Answer 35

Transcribes RNA into DNA

• helps viruses propagate

Question 36

20 amino acids created from 4 bases is possible due to

Answer 36

Reading aminos in groups of 3: codons

- 4³ = 64 codons

Question 37

Degenerate genetic code

Answer 37

More than 1 codon can encode 1 amino acid

Question 38

Start codon

Stop codon

Answer 38

AUG (Met)

UAA, UAG, UGA

Question 39

Wobble hypothesis

Answer 39

First two codons usually conserved, 3rd has wobble room

Question 40

Conservative DNA replication (theory)

Answer 40

DNA molecule duplicated, orginal molecule conserved

Question 41

Semiconservative DNA replication (true)

Answer 41

DNA strand separates and each strand serves as template for new

Question 42

Dispersive DNA replication (theory)

Answer 42

DNA backbone broken and new molecule has sections of old and new (Double strand)

Question 43

Meselson-Stahl Experiment (to discover how DNA is replicated)

Answer 43

1. E. coli grown in media with ¹⁵N isotope
2. DNA moved into media with ¹⁴N and allowed to replicate
3. DNA extracted and centrifuged (¹⁵N heavier); new molecules had intermediate density
   * could be dispersive or semiconservative
4. DNA extracted again after more replication, centrifuged and intermediate as well as ¹⁴N bands appeared
   * rules out dispersive, = semiconservative

Question 44

Prokaryote DNA replication

Answer 44

One origin of replication; sequence recognized by prereplication complex

• Replication proceed in both directions along chromosome

Question 45

Steps of Eukaryote DNA replication

Answer 45

S PHASE OF CELL CYCLE

• Multiple origins of replication
• Replication produces identical sister chromatid connected to DNA molecule at centromere of chromosome

1. Unwinding of double helix by helicase enzyme at replication fork
2. single stranded DNA binding proteins prevent separated strands from rejoining
3. Topoisomerase enzyme (DNA gyrase) relieves supercoiling caused by helicase by making incisions in one of the strands, uncoiling and rejoining
4. Primase initiates DNA replication by synthesizing short RNA primer; RNA primer has free 3’ hydroxyl group used as starting point for synthesis of new strand

• Okazaki fragments on lagging strand
  
  • Ligase bridges gap between fragments

5. DNA polymerase: travels along separated strand and adds nucleotides in 5’ –> 3’ direction
   * reads DNA 3’ to 5’

Question 46

Prokaryotic DNA polymerase

Answer 46

DNA pol I: removes RNA primer, replaces primer with DNA, repairs DNA

DNA pol II: repairs DNA

DNA pol III: synthesizes new DNA and proofreads DNA via 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity

Question 47

Eukaryotic DNA polymerase

Answer 47

DNA pol α: initiates DNA synthesis

DNA pol δ: synthesizes new DNA and replaces RNA primer with DNA

DNA pol ε: extends leading strand and repairs DNA

DNA pol β: repairs DNA

DNA pol γ: replicates mitochondrial DNA

Question 48

Telomerase

Answer 48

Extends telomeres; RNA dependent DNA polymerase

• repetitive sequences at ends of eukaryotic chromosomes
• otherwise ends would get shorter and shorter –> aging

Germ cells, stem cells, and cancer cells have telomerase

Question 49

How many chromosomes?

Autosomes are?

Answer 49

23 linear pairs, 46 individual

22 autosomes: homologous pairs, 22 inherited maternally and matching 22 inherited paternally

23rd is XY sex chromosomes

Question 50

How is DNA packaged?

Answer 50

Nucelosome: Basic subunit of DNA packaging; 200 bp wrapped around histone proteins

• histones further condensed into chromatin fiber

Chromatin further condensed into loop domains and then chromosomes

Question 51

Chromsome structure

Answer 51

P arm (petite), Q arm and then centromere connecting sister chromatids

Question 52

Heterochromatin vs Euchromatin

Answer 52

Heterochromatin: tightly coiled, dense form; hard to access DNA

Euchromatin: loose, spaghetti like configuration

• allows DNA to be readily replicated and transcribed

Question 53

Chromatin configuration has to do with

Acetylation of chromatin (what enzyme?)

Answer 53

Chromatin configuration has to do with CHARGED attraction between DNA and histone proteins

• DNA phosphate groups negative, histone proteins positive at histone tails

Interaction is regulation by enzymes that add/remove acetyl groups from (+) charged lysine at the end of histone tailed

• Acetylation: masks histone tails positive charge - promotes looser confirmation = euchromatin
  
  • ​histone acetyltransferase

Histone deactelyase to go back to heterochromatin

Question 54

98.8% of gene is noncoding

How do we produce 2 million unique proteins?

Answer 54

44% transposons, 24% introns and regulatory sequences, 15% noncoding DNA, 15% repetitive DNA

Alternative splicing, transcriptional and posttranscriptional modifications

Question 55

Variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) and short tandem repeats (STRs)

Answer 55

of repeats of sequences in DNA varies in people, used for DNA fingerprinting

Question 56

Single nucleotide polymorphism

Answer 56

Differences in one nucleotide at a specific location between different people

Question 57

Transposons

Class I and Class II

Answer 57

50% of genome; “jumping genes” sequences can jump to other parts of genome

1. Class I (copy and paste): DNA sequences transcribed to RNA then code reverse transcriptase enzyme
   
   1. uses RNA template to make DNA copy and inserts itself somewhere else in genome
2. Class II (cut and paste): enzyme splices sequence from DNA and it moves elsewhere

Thought to increase genetic diversity and evolution

Question 58

Centromeres

Answer 58

Contain blocks of repetitive DNA sequences rich in GC base pairs, tightly packed to maintain structural integrity

Question 59

Cell Cycle

M phase

M/spindle checkpoint

Answer 59

Mitosis or meiosis, cell division

• spindle checkpoint: chromosomes attached to microtubule fibers

DNA is packaged as heterochromatin

Question 60

Cell Cycle

Interphase (G₁, S, G₂)

Answer 60

90% of cycle, cell growth, organelle duplication, protein synthesis, DNA replication

DNA is packaged as euchromatin so proteins can be produced and allow transcription/translation

• G₁ phase: cell grows, protein synthesized
  
  • G₁ checkpoint: Resting phase during G1 phase, can last indefinitely
    • if not enough nutrients during G1 checkpoint
    • Neurons, nonmitotic cells
• S phase: DNA replication, # of chromosomes remains the same
• G₂ phase: more growth
  
  • G₂ checkpoint: DNA completely replicated/undamaged

Question 61

Cyclins

Answer 61

Present at each stage of cell cycle (specialize), levels are cyclical and spike when its time to use them

• when at high levels, bind and activate cyclin dependent kinases which phosphorylate and activate proteins which promote activity of a certain phase

Question 62

Mitosis

Answer 62

Cell division, makes two identical copies of a cell

• Occurs in somatic cells (all cells in body but germ cells)
• 4 phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase (PMAT)

Question 63

Prophase

homologous chromosomes

Answer 63

• Nuclear envelope disintegrates
• Nucleoli disappear (dense regions that assemble ribosomes)
• DNA condenses into tightly packed chromatin

homologous chromosomes: pair of maternal and paternal copies of same chromosome

• not identical like sister chromatids
• diff alleles of same genes

Question 64

kinetochore

Answer 64

Complex of proteins assembled on centromere - where spindle fibers attach during metaphase which forms mitotic spindle

• pull sister chromatids apart

Question 65

Centrosomes

Answer 65

Centrosomes: 2 cylindrical centrioles which are made up of microtubule fibers, where spindle fibers come from

• 2 at each pole of cell

Question 66

Mitosis

Metaphase

Answer 66

Chromsomes organized along metaphase plate

• cell must pass M checkpoint: chromosomes properly arranged and attached to mitotic spindle

Question 67

Nondisjunction

Leads to:

Answer 67

Chromosomes fail to separate normally resulting in abnormal distribution in daughter cells

• leads to aneuploidy: having extra or missing chromosomes

Question 68

Mitosis

Anaphase

Answer 68

Microtubule fibers pull apart sister chromatids

Question 69

Telophase

Answer 69

Nuclear envelope and nucleoli reappaear for each daughter cell

Question 70

Cytokinesis

Answer 70

Cytoplasmic division of a cell

• mediated by myosin and actin proteins

Create cleavage furrow

Question 71

Meisosis

Answer 71

Sexual reproduction that generates gametes (egg and sperm cells)

• wants genetically variable daughter cells unlike mitosis
• produces 4 daughter cells with half the chromosomes of parents (haploid, 23 chromosomes)

Only occurs in germ cells

• produce ova and sperm via oogenesis and spematogenesis

2 rounds of division, PMAT

Question 72

Meiosis I

Prophase I

Answer 72

Maternal and paternal copies of each chromosome (homologous chromosomes, 4 sister chromatids) = synapsis

• forms tetrads
• alleles differ
• chiasmata: points where homologs cross over genetic info

Question 73

Meiosis I

Metaphase I

Random assortment

Answer 73

23 homolog pairs line up randomly

• daughter cells get some maternal and some paternal DNA

Random/independent assortment

Question 74

Meiosis I

Anaphase I

Answer 74

2 chromosomes in pair are separated to opposite poles (become sister chromatid pairs)

• Daughter cells contain 23 chromosomes

Question 75

Meiosis I

Telophase I

Answer 75

Cell splits into haploid daughter cells

• chromosomes still paired with identical copies

Question 76

Meiosis II

Answer 76

Just like mitosis

1. Prophase II: nuclear envelope breaks down

2. Metaphase II: 23 chromosomes align along metaphase plate

3. Anaphase II: sister chromatids pulled apart

4. Telophase II: nuclear envelope reforms and cytokinesis

Question 77

Units to know:

kilo

milli

micro

nano

deci

centi

Question 78

Base units

Answer 78

amps

Kelvin

seconds

meters

kilograms

moles

Question 79

Derived units: combination of base units

Answer 79

ex. Hertz, Newton, Pascal

Question 80

Hertz (Hz)

Answer 80

s^-1

Frequency

Question 81

Newton

Answer 81

kg x m/s²

Force

Question 82

Pascal (Pa)

Answer 82

N/m²

Pressure

1 atm = 101,325 Pascal

Question 83

Joule (J)

Answer 83

N x m

Energy, Work, Heat

Question 84

Watt (W)

Answer 84

J/s

Power

Question 85

Coulomb (C)

Answer 85

A x s or A = C/s

Electric charge

Question 86

Volt (V)

Answer 86

J/C

Electric potential

Question 87

Farad (F)

Answer 87

C/A

Capacitance

Question 88

Ohm

Answer 88

Volts/Ampere

Resistance

Question 89

Tesla

Answer 89

Newtons/ Amperes x meters

Magnetic field

Question 90

Celsius

Answer 90

K-273

Question 91

1 mile ~~ km

1 foot ~ cm

1 inch ~ cm

1 pound ~~ Newtons

1 gallon ~ L

1 Calorie ~ J ~ kcal

Answer 91

1.6 km

30 cm

2. 5 cm
3. 5 Newtons

4 L

4000 J ~ 1 kcal

Question 92

Vectors

Answer 92

Magnitude and direction

• displacement
• velocity
• acceleration
• force
• magnetic/electrical fields
• bond dipoles

Subtracting vectors: reverse the vector being subtracted

Question 93

Scalars

Answer 93

No direction, just magnitude

• temperature
• loudness
• distance
• speed

Question 94

Velocity =

Answer 94

Displacement / time

m/s

Question 95

Acceleration

Answer 95

Velocity / time

m/s²

Question 96

Displacement vs. time graph

Answer 96

Slope = velocity

change in slope = ∆v = acceleration

Question 97

Velocity vs. time

Answer 97

Slope = acceleration

Area under curve = displacement

Question 98

Acceleration vs time graph

Answer 98

Area = velocity

Question 99

Kinematics definition

Answer 99

Study of motion w/ reference to forces involved

Question 100

Key kinematics eqns

Answer 100

d = v_avg x time v_avg = (v_i + v_f / 2)

a = ∆v / t

v_f = v_i + at

Question 101

Kinematics eqn when don’t know final velocity

When you don’t know time

Answer 101

d = v_it + .5 at²

v_f² = v_i² + 2ad

Question 102

Free fall problems

Answer 102

v_i = 0

a = g

d = y

d = v_it + .5gt² or v_f = √2gy

Question 103

Air resistance

Answer 103

Force due to air resistance eventually balances out due to gravity

terminal velocity: object no longer accelerating

Question 104

Projectile Motion

Answer 104

Only force acting on object is gravity; no horizontal acceleration, force stopped acting on object when enters arc

• Movment in x and y direction function independently
• **Time is connector between x and y components
• Projectile has some initial vertical velocity

v_x = v_icosθ d_x = v_xt

v_y = v_isinθ v_y = 0 at top of curve

then use kinematic eqns v_f² = v_i² + 2ad_y

Question 105

Force

Fundamental forces

Answer 105

Push or pull causes obj to accel

• 1 N = kg x m/s²

^{Fundamental forces:} gravity, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, weak nuclear

Question 106

Electromagnetic forces

Normal force:

Answer 106

force between two contacting surfaces

Question 107

Electromagnetic forces:

Friction:

force of friction

Answer 107

force that resists movement

f_friction = u N

u = coeff or friction

N = normal force

Question 108

Electromagnetic forces:

Tension:

Answer 108

pulling force exerted by a string or rope

Question 109

Electromagnetic forces:

Centripetal force

Answer 109

Force that causes something to move in a circular path or elliptical path

• can be electromagnetic or gravitational

Question 110

Electromagnetic forces:

Springs

Hooke’s law

Answer 110

Stretched or compressed

• elastic force

F_spring = kx

• k = spring constant (stiffness), x = distance

Question 111

Newtons 1st Law

Answer 111

Law of Inertia

• in the absence of external force, a body will remain in motion or rest

Resistance to acceleration

More mass = more inertia

Question 112

Newtons 2nd Law:

Answer 112

Acceleration is proportional to net force

F_net = ma

connects energy and movement

Question 113

Newtons 3rd Law

Answer 113

Every action has equal and opposite reaction

Question 114

Conservative forces

Answer 114

Conserve energy, path-independent

• *only concern final and initial states
• energy not lost to environment

ex. Gravity, electrostatic, magnetic, spring, pushing/pulling

Question 115

Non conservative forces

Answer 115

Dissipate energy, path dependent

• friction, air resistance, viscosity

F = mg

Gm₁m₂ / r²

Gravitational force between two masses

Question 116

Electrostatic force

In a uniform electric field equation

Non uniform

Answer 116

Electromagnetic force between two charges not moving relative to each other

• In a uniform electric field: F = qE
• non uniform EF: F = k (Q₁ q₂) /r²
  • ​Coulombs law
  • k = constant
  • Q1 and q2 are charges

Question 117

Hookes Law

Answer 117

Spring forces

F = k∆x

k= stiffness of spring

Question 118

Biological approach to human behavior is based off of

Answer 118

Genes, hormones, neurotransmitters

• Physical processes

Question 119

Psychological approach

Answer 119

The brain working as a whole

• Emotions, attitudes, memories, cognition, personality

Question 120

Ekman’s list of Universal emotions

Answer 120

1. Happiness
2. Surprise
3. Sadness
4. Fear
5. Disgust
6. Contempt
7. Anger

Question 121

Sociological approaches to behavior

Answer 121

Complicated systems - making sense of society

• lots of different perspectives
  
  • Social constructionism
  • Symbolic interactionism
  • Functionalism
  • Conflict theory

Difficulty using experiments - retrospective study designs, cross sectional designs; present moment relationships

• qualitative research, words not numbers

Question 122

Social constuctionism

Answer 122

Notion placed on an object/event by society

Question 123

Symbolic interactionism

Answer 123

Use of verbal, written, or physical communication and subjective understanding

Question 124

Functionalism

Answer 124

All of society should serve a function for the society

Question 125

Conflict Theory

Answer 125

Society is in perpetual conflict for limited resources

Question 126

Cultural learning

Answer 126

behavior passed through culture

Question 127

Adaptive traits

Answer 127

Trait which promotes reproductive success

Question 128

Temperament

Answer 128

How an individual responds behaviorally and emotionally to stimuli from the world

Question 129

Environmental factors for behavior

Answer 129

• Non-genetic influences
  
  • ex. family wealth, stress, endocrine-disrupting compounds, complex family relationships

Genes expressed more or less with environmental stimuli

Experience shapes behavior

DNA promoters that initiate expression and regulatory genes for proteins could vary in people

• ex. allele in gene for promoting serotonin (5HT-T) makes people susceptible to depression

Question 130

Nature vs. Nurture

heritability

Answer 130

Trying to characterize the heritability of a trait

heritability: degree of variation in a trait due to variation in the genotype

• (how much a trait is determined by genes alone

Twin studies monozygotic and dizygotic

Adopted children - genetics of real parent but environment of foster

Question 131

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Answer 131

Trouble metabolising phenylalanine

• Buildup causes cognitive impairment
• Low phenylalanine diet is best treatment

Question 132

Epigenetics

Answer 132

Changes to genome that don’t involve changing actual nucleotide content

• ex. methylation of cytosine, silences specific genes
  
  • stress, exercise, heritable

Question 133

Pregnancy (lasts how long, divided into, prenatal development governed by)

Answer 133

Pregnancy lasts 37-41 weeks, 3 trimesters

1. First trimester: major structures of fetus formed
2. Second trimester: fetus grows
3. Third trimester: getting swole

At 12 weeks, fetus organ architecture formed

Prenatal development:

• Umbilical cord connected to placenta: highly vascular bed of tissue, brinds fetal and maternal circulation in proximity to exchange nutrients, gases, waste
• Maternal malnutrition and smoking can harm fetal development
  
  • Stress, anxiety, depression

Question 134

Infancy to childhood

Reflexes for infants:

Answer 134

Palmar grasp reflex: baby grasps anything touching its palm

Rooting: infant searches for object touching mouth/cheek

Sucking: automatically sucks when something touches top of mouth

Moro reflex: in response to sudden movement/loud sounds; baby extends arms, throws back head and cries

Babinski reflex: toes stretch out when foot is tickled

Question 135

Devlopmental Stages (3):

Answer 135

• 0-12 months
  
  • Walking ~ 1 year
  • Motor: standing w/ assistance, crawling, holding toys
  • Social: primary caregiver, solitary, stranger anxiety, object permanence
  • Linguistic: laughing, bubbling, simple words
• 12-24 months
  
  • Physical independence: walking, climbing, drawing, throwing, stacking
  • Social/linguistic: terrible twos, sense of self, boundaries (none)
• 3+ years
  
  • More complex/mature behavior, toilet training, awareness of gender
  • Further language development

Question 136

Critical period of infancy

Answer 136

Time when experiences imprint life-long effects

• Language development is critical

Question 137

Adolescence

Answer 137

12-19 years

• Cognitive, social , behavioral changes

Question 138

Puberty

Answer 138

Puberty: biological changes

• earlier in females, menarche is landmark (first menstruation)
• development of secondary sex characteristics
  
  • pubic hair, breasts and wider hips, facial hair and adams apple
    
    • fat and muscle distribution different between sexes

All orchestrated by sex hormones- testosterone and estradiol

Obesity affects hormone exposure, earlier puberty

Question 139

Adulthood

Answer 139

Prefrontal cortex develops until ~25

• Responsible for rational decision making
• Neuronal axons in prefrontal cortex covered in myelin sheaths, transmit signals faster

Question 140

Aging

Answer 140

Degradation of telomeres

• limits cell division
• Gradual physical devline, more prone to disease
• mental processing slows and fluid intelligence

Question 141

Crystallized intelligence

Answer 141

Knowledge accumulated over time

• Remains stable
• Elderly considered wise

Question 142

Fluid intelligence

Answer 142

Fluid intelligence is the ability to think abstractly, reason quickly and problem solve independent of any previously acquired knowledge.

Question 143

Endocrine system functions

Answer 143

Fluid regulation, metabolism, blood-glucose and calcium levels

• One of two physical systems that regulates BEHAVIOR

Network of organs that secrete signalling molecules into the bloodstream (hormones)

• some cause direct changes, some cause release of other hormones
  
  • tropic hormones: target other endocrine glands, helps with control of systems

Question 144

tropic hormones:

Answer 144

target other endocrine glands, helps with control of systems

Question 145

Hormonal Axis: starts with

Answer 145

Endocrine system from brain southward; higher glands regulate lower ones

• Hypothalamus: converts input from nervous system into endocrine signals
  
  • hypo = low, below thalamus in forebrain, above pituitary gland

Hypothalamus releases high level hormones to the pituitary gland, where other tropic hormones released

• ex. GnRH (gonadotropic releasing hormone, triggers LH and FSH reproductive hormones)
• CRF- promotes ACTH which releases cortisol from adrenal glands

Question 146

Endocrine system

Hormonal axis: hypothalamus signals ____ via the ____

What hormones?

Answer 146

Pituitary glands

• Anterior pituitary: receives input from hypophyseal portal system (connecting blood vessels, hormones)
  
  • Releases Luteinizing Hormone, (LH)
  • Follicle Stimulating hormone, (FSH)
  • thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • Prolactin (milk production)
  • Endorphins (reduce perception of pain)
  • Growth hormones
• Posterior pituitary: controlled by hypothalamus via neuronal signals instead of hormonal
  
  • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates fluid balance
    
    • diabetes insipidus: inability to regulate fluid balance
  • Oxytocin (labor)

Question 147

Endocrine system

Thyroid and Parathyroid

Hormone?

Answer 147

Located in the throat

• Releases thyroid hormone which affects metabolism and behavior

Question 148

Endocrine system

Pancreas

Answer 148

Abdomen, less important behaviorally

Question 149

Endocrine system

Adrenal glands

Answer 149

Above kidneys

2 distinct areas:

1. Cortex: secretes cortisol and mediates chronic stress response
2. Medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine, and flight or fight response

Question 150

Endocrine system

Ovaries and testies

Answer 150

Secrete estrogen and testosterone

Question 151

Endocrine system hormonal axis from top to bottom:

Answer 151

Hypothalamus

Pituitary glands: antieror and posterior

Thyroid and parathyroid

Pancreas

Adrenal glands

Ovaries and testes

Question 152

Estrogen and testosterone

Answer 152

Promote libido, interest in sexual behavior (sex drive)

• testosterone associated with aggression
• both sexes secrete some of both

Question 153

Oxytocin

Answer 153

Labor contractions, latation, social bonding (affection, mood)

• primary examble of positive feedback, more oxytocin leads to more contractions which leads to more oxytocin
• antidepressant, orgasms

*Produced by hypothalamus, secreted by pituitary gland

Question 154

Prolactin

Answer 154

Induces lactation

• Stress response, anxiety, depression, contributor to post-partum depression

Produced by anterior pituitary gland

Question 155

Melatonin (secreted by? production suppressed by?)

Answer 155

Secreted by pineal gland in brain

• induces sleep
• blue light suppresses melatonin production

Question 156

Hunger is regulated by (3 hypothalamic hormones)

Answer 156

Both produced in hypothalamus:

Leptin: reduces hunger, released by adipocytes (fat cells)

• also has roles in reproduction, immune system, obesity

Ghrelin: promotes hunger, released by cells in gastrointestinal tract when stomach is empty (stomach growl –> ghrelin)

• learning, mood, sleep, reproduction

Neuropeptide Y (NPY): stimulates appetite

Question 157

Stress Hormones

Answer 157

ADRENAL GLANDS

epinephrine and norepinephrine: secreted by adrenal medulla

• acute stress response, fight or flight
• also secreted by neurotransmitters

cortisol: released by adrenal cortex, chronic stress response

• increases blood sugar

Question 158

Thyroid hormone

Answer 158

Promotes metabolism

hypo/hyperthyroidism:

• hypo- fatigue and depression
• hyper - irritability

Question 159

Mechanism of Nervous system

Answer 159

Stimuli –> perception –> response

Question 160

Neurons components

Answer 160

Consists of dendrites: receive input from other nerves/organs

Soma

Axon: action potential travels down from dendrites

Axon terminal

Question 161

At rest, electric potential difference of neuron membrane is

Does stimuli reduce or raise this potential?

Answer 161

-70 mV

Stimuli REDUCES electric potential difference, -55 mV causes action potential fire

Question 162

Action potential

Synapse

Answer 162

Travels down axon to axon terminal

• releases neurotransmitters at the synapse

synapse: space between one neuron and another (or target cell)

Question 163

Reflexes

neuromuscular junction

Answer 163

Automatic behaviors that occur in response to certain stimuli

Reflex arc: simple neural pathways that control reflexes

• ex. Patellar reflex, sensory neuron stretches from knee to spine
  
  • motor neuron signals back down to quadricep muscle

Synapse between motor neuron and muscle is neuromuscular junction

• motor neuron releases neurotransmitter acetylcholine which causes muscle to contract

Question 164

Sensory neurons are _____ neurons

Motor neurons are _____ neurons

Answer 164

AFFERENT neurons, carry info about stimuli to CNS

EFFERENT neurons, signal effect to target cells

SAME, sensory afferent motor efferent

Question 165

Neurotransmitters

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory

Answer 165

Push the membrane potential difference in either direction

Neurons geneally receive multiple signals, the SUM of inputs decide whether it will fire action potential

excitatory: depolarizes membrane of target neuron, easier for signal to travel (higher mV, -70 to -55)

inhibitory: hyperpolarizes target neuron, less likely to send signal

Question 166

How do neurotransmitters change electric potential?

Answer 166

Bind to receptors that open up ion channels

• High specificity to different signals –> receptor subtypes
  
  • different receptors in diff neurons

ex. serotonin can have excitatory or inhibitory effect

Question 167

Acetylcholine

Answer 167

Neurotransmitter, muscle contractions

• also communicates signals between central NS and autonomic NS
• sends signals from parasympathetic neurons to target

Question 168

Glutamate

Answer 168

Neurotransmitter; excitatory, depolarizes neurons

• most common neurotransmitter, 90% of neuronal connections in brain
  
  • learning and memory

Opposite of GABA

Question 169

GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)

Answer 169

Neurotransmitter, inhibitory

• Opposite of glutamate, hyperpolarizes neurons
  
  • slow or block certain signals in the brain

Question 170

Dopamine

Associated disease?

Answer 170

Neurotransmitter; reward pathways and addiction

• increased by psychoactive drugs, euphoria
• mediates motor functions
• loss of dopamine-secreting neurons in substantia nigra leads to Parkinsons disease

Question 171

Serotonin

Antidepressants name

Answer 171

Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, intestinal movement

• current hypothesis is depression associated with low serotonin

Antidepressants: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

• prevent serotonin from being taken up by neurons, stays in synapse longer

Question 172

Endorphins

Answer 172

Neurotransmitter; suppress pain and produce euphoria

Question 173

Agonist vs. Antagonists

Answer 173

Agonists: Compound that activates a certain receptor, causing a response

• partial agonists: not as strong

Antagonists: bind receptor but don’t cause a response, prevents neurotransmitter from being able to exercise its affects

Question 174

Peripheral Nervous System

Answer 174

Extending nerves from brain and spinal cord to everywhere else

• somatic and autonomic

Question 175

PNS
Somatic NS

Answer 175

Voluntary acitivities, efferent motor nerves and sensory afferent nerves

Question 176

PNS

Autonomic Nervous System

Answer 176

Unconcious activities

• digestion, heart rate, breathing, pupil dilation, urination
• ddivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic

Question 177

PNS
Autonomic NS

Sympathetic NS

Answer 177

Fight or flight response to acute stress

• mobilizes resources to deal with emergency now
• HR increases, epinephrine released, more resources to muscles
• Pupils dilate, start sweating

Also suppresses unnecessary functions like digestion, slows paralstalsis

• tunnel vision, less likely sexual arousal

Question 178

PNS
Autonomic NS

Parasympathetic NS

Answer 178

Rest and digest response

• blood vessels restrict supply to muscles, dilate in digestive tract
• promotes digestion, salivation, urination, defecation, lacrimination (tear production), sexual arousal

Question 179

PNS
Autonomic NS

Enteric NS

Answer 179

Regulates activity of the gut

Question 180

Central Nervous System

Answer 180

Brain and spinal cord

Question 181

Forebrain (2 subunits)

Answer 181

Advanced functions like reasoning

• Diencephelon: contains thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland
  
  • thalamus: relays sensory and motor signals
    
    • regulates sleep and alertness
  • hypothalamus: bridge between NS and endocrine system
  • Pituitary gland: releases hormones
• Telencephalon:
  
  • cerebrum: cerebral cortex and subcortical structures
    
    • cerebral cortex: right and left hemispheres
    • subcortical structures: LIMBIC SYSTEM
      
      • ​olfactory bulbs: detecting odors
      • hippocampus: consolidates short term memory into long term
      • basal ganglia: eye movement, voluntary movement, habitual learning

Question 182

Midbrain

Answer 182

In between, vision and eye movement

• Inferior colliculus: auditory input (not the primary place)
• Superior colliculus: visual input (not the primary place)
• Substantia nigra: neurons communicate with dopamine for voluntary movements

Midbrain and medulla oblongata + pons form the Brainstem, physical support for the brain

Question 183

Hindbrain

Answer 183

Basic functions like breathing

• Cerebellum: forms distinct structure at the base of the brain
  
  • coordinates movement, balance
• Medulla oblongata: autonomic functions like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure
• Pons: relay station for signals between cerebellum, medulla, and rest of brain
  
  • sleep, respiration, swallowing, taste

Question 184

Brainstem

Answer 184

Midbrain and medulla oblongata + pons form the Brainstem, physical support for the brain

• contains reticular activating system (RAS) – modulates alertness and arousal

Question 185

Diencephelon:

Answer 185

Forebrain

contains thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland

• thalamus: relays sensory and motor signals
  
  • regulates sleep and alertness
• hypothalamus: bridge between NS and endocrine system
• Pituitary gland: releases hormones

Question 186

Telencephalon:

Answer 186

Forebrain

• cerebrum: cerebral cortex and subcortical structures
  
  • cerebral cortex: right and left hemispheres
  • subcortical structures: LIMBIC SYSTEM
    
    • ​olfactory bulbs: detecting odors
    • hippocampus: consolidates short term memory into long term
    • basal ganglia: eye movement, voluntary movement, habitual learning

Question 187

Limbic system

Answer 187

Emotion, motivation, memory

subcortical structures: LIMBIC SYSTEM + hypothalamus, amygdala

- ​olfactory bulbs: detecting odors

- hippocampus: consolidates short term memory into long term

- basal ganglia: eye movement, voluntary movement, habitual learning

• amygdala: episodic memory, attention, emotion
• Nucleus accumbens: reward, motivation, learning; implicated in addiction

Question 188

Cerebral cortex 4 lobes

Answer 188

1. Frontal lobe: voluntary movement, memory processing, planning, motivation, attention
   * Broca’s area: language production
2. Parietal lobe: all sensory processing but vision
3. Occipital lobe: vision, back of brain
4. Temporal lobe: meaning, visual memories, language
   * Wernickes area: language comprehension

Question 189

Brocas area

Answer 189

Located in frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex

Language production

Question 190

Wernickes Area

Location

Answer 190

Located in temporal lobe of cerebral cortex

• language comprehension

Question 191

Lateralization (brain)

Answer 191

Tendency of left and right hemispheres to specialize

• different neurons respond differently to neurotransmitters

Question 192

Spinal cord

Answer 192

Link between central and peripheral NS

• both brain and spinal cord protected by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Also protected by meninges (tough membranes) and by bones (skull and vertebrae

Question 193

Vertebrae

Answer 193

Holes in middle for spinal cord;

cervical (C1-C7), thoracic (T1-T12), lumbar (L1-L5), sacrum (S1-S5)(fused together)

Ends with coccyx

• D.orsal
• A.fferent nerves
• V.entral
• E.fferent nerves

Question 194

Dermatomes

Answer 194

Areas of skin with nerves that correspond to different vertebrae

Question 195

Methods of studying the brain/other parts of body

Answer 195

Observing injury and stimulation to certain areas with electrodes or chemicals

Electroencephalograms (EEG): using electrodes on brain, identify function not structure

Computed Tomography (CT): 2D x-rays to make 3D image

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): magnetic fields, no radiation, better at imaging soft structures

Positron Emission Tomography (PET): radiolabels glucose with fludeoxyglucose, emits positrons as it decays

• more decay = more glucose metabolised = more neural activity
• can diagnose tumors, strokes, dementia

fMRI: now preferred over PET, relies on differences in magnetic properties b/w oxygenated hemoglobin (arterial blood) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (venous blood)

• visualize blood flow

Question 196

Genes

Answer 196

DNA sequence that codes for a protein that produces a trait

• Genes found at specific locations are called locus

Variations in same gene are alleles - one on each homologous chromosome

• dominant or recessive
• hemizygous = one copy present
• homozygous = two

Wild type: most common variant (W⁺W⁺)

Mutant: mutated alleles

Question 197

Loss of function mutations

Gain of function mutations

Answer 197

Tend to be recessive, can be covered

Gain of function usually dominant

Question 198

Test cross

Backcrossing

Answer 198

Homozygous recesssive cross to determine genotype

Crossing offspring with parent genotype

Question 199

Codominance

Answer 199

Two dominant alleles expressed

ex. ABO blood types, type AB

Question 200

Incomplete dominance

Answer 200

Blended phenotype, heterozygote

Question 201

Penetrance

Answer 201

Likelihood a genotype will manifest a phenotype

Question 202

Expressivity

Answer 202

Severity of a phenotype

Question 203

Inheritance Patterns

Pedigrees

Answer 203

Autosomal: non sex chromosomes, recessive can skip generations

de novo: spontaneous mutation

Sex-linked: usually X-linked, recessive or dominant

Question 204

Mendel’s Laws

Segregation:

Independent assortment

Dominance:

Linkage:

Answer 204

Segregation: allele pairs segregate randomly from each other into gametes

Independent assortment: alleles for separate traits independently inherited; not always true due to linkage

• linkage: genes close to each other on same chromosome are usually inherited together unless genetically recombined (crossing over at chismata)

Dominance: recessive alleles mask to some degree

Question 205

Centimorgans and linkage

Single vs. Double crossover b/w homologs

Answer 205

Distance associated with a 1% change in recombination frequency

• ex. 1 Cm = 1% chance of recombination
• 50 Cm = unlinked

Double crossover- genes so far apart 2 crossover events cause them to be on same chromosome

Question 206

Evolutionary system:

Answer 206

1. Variation
2. Reproduction
3. Differential reproduction due to selective pressure

Question 207

Natural selection

Answer 207

Describes how favorable traits are favored over time

• underlying mechanism

Fitness is relative to environment

Question 208

Altruism

Answer 208

Acting in a way that benefits others survivals

• I’d save 2 brothers or 8 cousins

Question 209

Group selection

Answer 209

Natural selection applied to a group level

Question 210

Inclusive fitness

Answer 210

Traits passed on that promote survival of the group

• altruism, empathy, sharing alleles

Question 211

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Answer 211

Mathematical relationship between alelles and phenotype frequencies

Used to model stable gene pools

• gene pool: evolutionary success indicated by popular alleles in gene pool
  
  • stable:
    
    • no mutation
    • random mating
    • large population size
    • no natural selection

A = p

a = q

allele frequency: p + q = 100%

phenotype frequency: p² + 2pq + q² = 1

Question 212

Earth age

Life age

Human age

Answer 212

4.6 billion years

3-4 billion years

200,000 years

Question 213

Natural Selection Types:

stabilizing

directional

Dispruptive

Answer 213

stabilizing: favors intermediate phenotypes

Directional: favors one extreme

Disruptive: both extremes favored

Question 214

Ways gene pools may change:

Answer 214

Natural selection and chance

Genetic drift: change in gene pool due to random chance, usually in smaller populations

• Bottleneck effect: natural disaster artifically increases/decreases allele frequency
• Founder effect: reduction in genetic diversity due to small group founding a new colony

Random errors in the genome accumulate at a fixed rate; can be used to tell how long ago there was a shared ancestor

Gene flow: movement of alleles due to migration between populations

Question 215

Factors influencing evolution:

Answer 215

Gene flow

Random Chance

Migration

Mutation

Selective pressure

Question 216

Species

Answer 216

Group of organisms that can form fertile offspring and reproductively isolated from other groups

• contested, doesn’t apply to asexual organisms, like bacteria or hybridization

Question 217

Reproductive Isolation

Prezygotic and Postzygotic barriers

Answer 217

Prezygotic: prevent zygote from forming

Postzygotic: prevent formed zygote from being visibile or fertile

• hybrids: two different species make viable offspring thats usually sterile

Question 218

Inbreeding vs. Outbreeding

Answer 218

Inbreeding: Breeding between closely genetically related individuals

• deleterious recessive mutations

Outbreeding: breeding with and passing alleles between unrelated members of same species

• genetic diversity

Question 219

Divergent vs. Convergent Evolution

Answer 219

Divergent: Common ancestor splits into two species due to different traits

Convergent: two species become more phenotypically similar, not as common

Question 220

Parallel Evolution

Coevolution

Answer 220

Parallel Evolution: 2 closely related species share a common ancestor and evolve similar traits independently

Coevolution: evolution of two species in response to eachother, symbiotic relationships

Question 221

Symbiosis and types

Answer 221

Relationship between two organisms that benefits, harms, or has no effect for one or both parties

• Mutualism: both organisms benefit
• Commensalism: one organism benefits, no effect on other
• Parasitism: parasite benefits from harming its host

Question 222

Center of mass equation

Answer 222

X_center = m₁x₁ + m₂x₂… / (m₁ + m₂)

x = distance to masses from reference point

Question 223

Static vs. Kinetic Friction

Answer 223

Static: opposes movement of an object not moving

• magnitude depends on force applied to object

Kinetic: opposes object in motion

• constant magnitude

Different materials have different coefficients

F_max = u_s N

• Force required to move object depends on coeff of static friction and normal force on object

F_kinetic = u_k N

Question 224

Pulleys and inclined planes

Answer 224

Reference work

Question 225

Gravitational and centripetal force equations

Answer 225

F_grav = Gm₁m₂ / r²

• G = gravitational constant
  
  • 6.67 x10^-11 m³ /kg s²

F_{centripetal =} mv²/r

• if caused by gravity, then g = v²/r

Question 226

Torque

Answer 226

JOINTS, DIPOLES (rotate to align in electric field)

Force applied to rotate an object around a fixed axis

• rotational force applied to a lever arm at a distance from the fulcrum

T= Fdsinθ

Strongest torque = force at 90 degrees, greatest distance from fulcrum

• sin90 = 1

Clockwise = neg T

CCW = positive

Question 227

Lipids

Answer 227

2 layers = bilayer membrane, polar exterior and nonpolar interior

• small nonpolar molecules can diffuse easily, large polars can’t

Sterols

Glycolipids

Question 228

Sterols

Answer 228

Lipids

Cholesterol, modulates fluidity of plasma membranes

• characteristic 4 ring structure

Steroid hormones

Question 229

Glycolipids

Answer 229

Carbohydrate modifies the lipid instead of a phosphate group

Peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide

• cell signaling and cell adhesion
• amphipathic structure
• either glycerol or sphingosine backbone

Glyceroglycolipid

Sphingolipid: sphingomyelin clusters with cholesterol to form “lipid rafts”

• modulate fluidity and clusters for signaling

Question 230

Proteins of cell membrane

Integral

Lipid-anchored

Peripheral

Glycoproteins

Answer 230

Integral: embedded in plasma membrane

• transmembrane proteins: completely cross cell membrane
• protein pumps, ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors

Lipid-anchored: bound to 1+ lipid molecules which anchor protein to membrane

• G-protein: intracellular, coordinate cascade initiated by G protein coupled receptors

Peripheral- found in cytoplasm, temporarily attached to integral proteins

• enzymes and hormones, only briefly interact with membrane

Glycoproteins: glycosylated proteins (addition of carbohydrate)

• Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
• antigens of ABO blood type system
• cell recognition and communication processes

Question 231

Liposomes

Answer 231

Lipid bilayers enclosing a spherical space

• lab derived, deliver material to target cells
• test cell membrane permeability
• can also embed proteins

Question 232

Micelles

Answer 232

Structurally simpler liposome, only a single layer lipid membrane

• can reduced surface tension of a solution
  
  • surfactants
• don’t contain membrane proteins

Question 233

Fluid Mosaic Model

Answer 233

Cell membrane is constantly in motion; motion is constrained

• Forms coherent hole but pieces are visible

Phospholipids can move horizontally but not vertically

• need enzymes to catalyze movement
  
  • Flippase: moves phospholipids from external side to internal side
  • Floppase: opposite
  • Scramblaser: bidirectional

Degree to which phospholipids can move laterally is membrane fluidity

• makes space for diffusion and imbedded proteins
• too much/too little fluidity would be an issue

Question 234

Modulating fluidity of bilayer membrane

Answer 234

Cholesterol: regulates extremes

• at cold temperatures, cholesterols ring structure gives fatty acid tails a rigid shape; keeps space between them
• inhibits fluidity in heat

Question 235

Phospholipid structure

Answer 235

Phosphate head, saturated and unsaturated fatty acid tails

• saturated: no C=C double bonds; stackable, interact with each other easily, and higher melting pt
  
  • interactions between tails which are closer together
• unsaturated: at least one C=C; lower melting points and more fluidity

Question 236

Simple Diffusion (Passive Transport)

Answer 236

Down concentration gradient, high to low

• small molecules:
  
  • gases (O₂, CO₂)
    
    • _​essential for respiration
  • small uncharged polar molecules
    
    • H₂O, ethanol, urea

Question 237

Osmosis (simple diffusion)

Isotonic, Hypotonic, Hypertonic

Answer 237

Water diffuses to side with highest solute concentration

• semi-permeable membrane

Isotonic: equal conc of solutes

Hypotonic: more solute inside than outside, cell can burst or swell

• increases pressure, headaches and drowsiness
• IV hydration administers isotonic saline

Hypertonic: more solute outside cell, cell shrinks

• can be used to preserve food, kills bacteria (plasmolysis)

Question 238

Osmotic Pressure

Van’t Hoff’s Law

Answer 238

Water exerts pressure on membrane and blocks any more from passive

Minimum pressure to prevent further osmosis

Van’t Hoff’s Law: π = MRT

• M = molarity (n/L) (moles / Liters solute)
• R = ideal gas constant
• T = temp in Kelvin

Question 239

Molality

Answer 239

Moles solute / kg solvent

Question 240

Osmolarity:

Answer 240

Molarity of all solute particles (1 mol NaCl would be 2 osm/L)

Question 241

Van’t Hoff Factor

Answer 241

π = iMRT

i = # of particles per molecule

ex. NaCl i=2

Question 242

Facilitated Diffusion (passive transport)

Answer 242

Molecules too big or polary undergo facilitated diffusion

• Transmembrane channels serve as transporter for molecules
  
  • specific for solutes
  • respond to stimuli to open
  • flow is down concentration gradient, no ATP

Against osmotic gradient, thermodynamically favored (increases entropy)

Channels can bottleneck and rates of diffusion level off = saturation kinetics

Question 243

Aquaporins

Answer 243

Transporter specific for water

• transmembrane proteins that selectively conduct water molecules
  
  • highly polar
  • rate of osmosis is limited

Question 244

Ion Channels

Answer 244

Transport ions

• extremely specific
• selective for when they open up
  
  • response to signals
    
    • voltage: changes in electric membrane potential

Voltage gated ion channel: neuronal signaling and propagation of action potentials

Ligand-gated transporters: open in response to signal molecules

• neurotransmitters

Channels can respond to light, pressure, shearing (breaking off), stretching

Question 245

Active Transport

Answer 245

Requires ATP to move solute AGAINST a concentration/electrochemical gradient

• Primary and secondary active transport

Question 246

Primary Active Transport

Answer 246

Transmembrane proteins catalyze ATP hydrolysis –> releases energy –> moves solutes across membrane

• transmembrane ATPases catalyze hydrolysis of ATP
• can also be powered by redox reactions or energy from photons

redox example: Enzymes of electron transport train in mitochondria use energy released from redox rxns to translocate proteins across inner mito membrane against conc gradient

ex. Sodium Potassium pump
* Na⁺K⁺ ATPase

Question 247

Sodium Potassium Pump

Answer 247

Body maintains difference in concentrations of Na and K ions inside and outside of cell

• Sodium has higher conc out of cell “blood is salty”
• Potassium has higher conc inside cell

3 sodium in for 2 K+ out for each ATP molecule

• Maintains a net charge imbalance of -1 inside cell
  
  • ** contributes to membrane potential

Question 248

Secondary Active Transport

Answer 248

Active and passive transport

• Active transport generates conc gradient which powers passive transport of something else
  
  • spontaneous process powers a nonspontaneous one
  • direction can be opposite or same
    
    • symporter and antiporter

ex. Sodium-Glucose cotransporter: symporter moves sodium and glucose into cell via passive transport using NaK pump conc gradient

Question 249

cyt =

cytosis=

endo =

exo=

phago =

pino=

Answer 249

cyt = cell

cytosis= cell absorption/ release

endo = inside

exo= outside

phago = eat

pino= drink

Question 250

Endocytosis

Answer 250

Some substances too large to be transported by transmembrane proteins; endo/exocytosis used for uptake and release of growth factors, antibodies, and other proteins, low density lipoprotein (contains cholesterol)

Endocytosis: cells absorb molecules by engulfing them

• area of plasma membrane surrounds a material forming a vesicle
  
  • ​vesicle buds off from internal face of membrane
    
    • pinocytosis: cell engulfs liquid
    • phagocytosis: cell engulfs a solid
      
      • typically by phagocytes of immune system to ingest foreign particles/pathogens
• receptor-mediated endocytosis: cell is targeting specific molecules

Question 251

Exocytosis

Answer 251

Membrane of intracellular vesicle fuses with plasma membrane

• lipids or proteins bound for plasma membrane or secreted proteins
• in some cases, release is controlled by calcium ion signaling

ex. influx of Ca²⁺ ions into neurons leads to release of neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft

• neurons release neurotransmitters via exocytosis

Question 252

Once a cell ingests a substance (endocytosis)

Answer 252

Endosomes are membrane bound organelles that function as sorting compartments

• identify engulfed substances that should be reused in plasma membrane like receptor components vs those the cell needs internally or should be degraded

early endosomes: are located close to plasma membrane, do most of sorting

late endosomes: main role is delivering matrial to lysosomes: recycler of cell; highly acidic with special enzymes

• For phagocytosis, phagosomes deliver pathogens to lysosomes

Question 253

Avogradros Number

Answer 253

6.022 x 10²³

Number of units/atoms in one mole of a substance

Question 254

Multiplying exponents (scientific notation)

Dividing in scientific notation

Adding and subtracting them

Answer 254

Multiply front number, add exponents

Divide front number, subtract exponents

Manipulate decimals so that terms are to the same exponent and then add

Question 255

For triangles,

cosθ =

sinθ =

tanθ=

Answer 255

cosθ= adjacent over hypotenuse

sinθ = opposite over hypotenuse

tanθ = opposite over adjacent

Question 256

Special Right Triangles

30-60-90

45-45

Answer 256

sin90 = 1

cos 90= 0

cos 0= 1

sin0 = 0

Question 257

Archaea

Answer 257

Unicellular, many are extremophiles

• thrive in extreme tmp, pH, or salt conditions

Use whatever energy source they can get their flagella on

• organic compounds
• ammonia
• hydrogen gas
• metal ions
• photosynthesis

Question 258

Types of bacteria

Answer 258

Much more common than archaea; most in humans are commensal

Categorized by shape:

• coccus: sphere shaped
• bacillus: rod shaped
• spirillum: spiral shapped

Question 259

Pathogens:

Answer 259

Bacteria that are harmful to the body

• harm host through different mechanisms
  
  • reproduce intracellularly or outside of host
  • secrete damaging toxins
• Normally treated with antibiotics
  
  • antibiotic resistance:
    
    • ​pump out drugs with efflux pumps
    • inactivating antimicrobial enzymes

ex. E coli

Staphylococcus aureus - multidrug resistance responsible for MRSA

Question 260

Types of Aerobes/Anaerobes

Answer 260

obligate aerobes: oxygen required for metabolism

anaerobes: oxygen not required

• obligate anaerobes: can’t survive in presence of oxygen
• aerotolerant: tolerate O₂
• facultative: aerobic metabolism when available

Question 261

Prokaryotic cell structure

Answer 261

lack of membrane bound nucleus and organelles

• bacterial DNA resides in nucleoid region of cytoplasm
  
  • Genetic material is single circular chromosome of dsDNA
• *transcription and translation occur simultaneously

Plasmids

Cell wall: provides structural support and extra layer of defense

• rich in rigid polysaccharide called peptidoglycan
  
  • ​can take up gram stain

Question 262

Plasmids

Answer 262

Many bacteria cantain smaller circular DNA fragments

• non essential genes; an confer antibiotic resistance or code for virulence factors: enhance ability to spread/harm host

Question 263

Gram staining

Answer 263

Technique used to separate bacteria into two categories based on structure of cell walls

Gram positive: thick, peptidoglycan rich cell wall traps stain

Gram negative: thin layer of peptidoglycan followed by LPS

• ex. E coli

Antibiotics like penicillin target peptidoglycan wall and have trouble penetrating gram-negative outer membrane, makes them more difficult to treat than gram-positive

• LPS is antigenic and capable of inducing a deadly innate immune response in humans

Question 264

Bacterial Respiration

Answer 264

Aerobic respiration w/o mitochondria

• Electron transport chain is located on cell membrane
  
  • endosymbiotic theory: mitochondria originated when cyanobacterium was englufed by Eukaryotic cell

Question 265

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic ribosome structure

Answer 265

Prokaryotic: 30S and 50S -> 70S

Eukaryotic: 40S and 60S -> 80S

Svedberg units: describe sedimentation rate

Difference between ribosomes allow antibiotics to target bacterial ribosomes

Question 266

Flagella in eukaryotes vs. prokaryotes

Answer 266

Eukaryotic: composed of microtubules and whips back and forth to propel cell

Prokaryotic flagella: rotate to propel cell forward

• comprised of filament, basal body (responsible for rotation), and hook connects the two

Question 267

Bacterial reproduction

Answer 267

Binary Fission:

1. Circular chromosome replicated
2. Cell growth
3. New cell wall grows and segregates
4. Two chromosomes pulled towards either half of cell
5. Cell splits

as quickly as 20 min, growth constrained by nutrient resources

Question 268

Bacterial 4 phases of growth

Answer 268

1. Lag phase- bacteria adapt to new environment
2. Exponential
3. Stationary- growth limited by nutrients
4. Death phase

Question 269

In some viruses, capsid is enclosed within a lipid envelope of phospholipids and proteins

Answer 269

Sensitive to light and heat

Must be transmitted via bodily fluid

ex. HIV

Question 270

Viral genomes

Answer 270

ssDNA, dsDNA, ssRNA, ds RNA

ssRNA:

• positive sense if they contain mRNA that can be translated to protein
• negative sense if RNA is complementary to mRNA and must be copied into mRNA by viral enzyme RNA replicase prior to translation

Question 271

Retroviruses

Answer 271

Contain reverse transcriptase to transcribe RNA to DNA and integrate into host

• used in PCR for amplification
  ex. HIV, responsible for AIDS, hard to treat because genome integrated with hosts
• treated successfully w/ antiretroviral drugs that target reverse transcriptase

Question 272

Retrotransposons

Answer 272

Mobile elements that make up 40% of human genome

Question 273

Viral DNA vs Viral RNA

Answer 273

DNA: translocates to nucleus, trascribed by hosts RNA polymerase

RNA: immediately translated to protein in cytoplasm or reverse transcribed to DNA

Question 274

Extrusion

Answer 274

Release of virions from host cell, leaves host cell intact (not lytic)

Question 275

Horizontal gene transfer in bacteria

Answer 275

Achieving genetic variability despite asexual reproduction

Conjugation (fertility factor F⁺)(sex pilus)(major cause of antibiotic resistance)

Transformation

Transduction (bacteriophages)

Question 276

Bacteriophages

Answer 276

Infect bacteria, more complex structure

Lytic- release lyses cell

Lysogenic (integration into host genome)

• creates prophage/provirus lies dormant in host until triggered by environmental signal
  
  • then switches to lytic cycle

Question 277

Antiviral mechanisms

Answer 277

Some target reverse transcriptase

Target attachment to host cell

Block assembly of new virions

Question 278

Viroids

Answer 278

Small simple RNA particles that infect plants

Lacks capsid/envelope

Binds complementary RNA sequence in plants to silence gene expression

Question 279

Prions

Answer 279

Misfoled proteins that cause other proteins to misfold and aggregate together, harming cell function

• Responsible for Creutzfeld-Jakob disease
  
  • ​fatal neurodegenerative disease transmitted by eating beef from cattle w/ mad cow disease
• Fatal familial insomnia and kuru

Question 280

Mycobiome

Answer 280

Nonharmful fungi

Question 281

Pathogenic fungi

Answer 281

yeast infections, ringworm

Question 282

Parasitic organisms

Why are they difficult to treat?

Answer 282

Protozoa: single celled parasites (eukaryotes)

• carried by mosquitoes -> malaria

Helminths: multicellular worms

Ectoparasites: multicellular, live outside host

• fleas, lice

Immune system mediates infections by eusinophils and IgE antibodies

• parasites tricky to treat because eukaryotic, same machinary

Question 283

Restriction enzymes/ restriction endonucleases

Answer 283

Cleave DNA at specific sequences, DNAses

Sequences that restriction enzymes look for have defining features: 4-8 bp long, symmetric/palindromic inverted repeats

• Prokaryotic DNAses can act as defense against viruses
• Some DNAses are nonspecific and cleave DNA wherever they can

Question 284

DNAse cleavage creates:

Answer 284

Blunt ends: small restriction enzymes

Sticky ends: EcoR1 restriction enzyme

Sticky ends more desirable because they can be ligated back with DNA ligase

Question 285

DNA recombination

Vectors

Answer 285

Insert target sequence into “vector” (small DNA molecule that can transfer DNA into target cells by hijacking replication machinary and integrating itself)

Vectors:

• plasmids: derived from prokaryotes circular DNA that replicate independently
  
  • spliced, recombined, and introduced into bacteria
  • Gene sequence “insert” is synthesized with 2 restriction sites matching plasmid vector
  • reporter gene: in plasmid elicits visible phenotype change
• bacteriophage: incorporate larger sequences

Same techniques used for RNA if reverse transcriptase used

Question 286

DNA recombination steps

Answer 286

1. Synthesize gene seq insert with restriction sites
2. Digest insert and vector
3. Ligation of insert and vector
4. Treatment of bacteria w/ plasmid
5. Plasmid replication
6. Select for bacteria w/ plasmid

Question 287

Genetic engineering goals

Answer 287

1. Mass protein production: insulin, vaccine components, inteferons, tumor necrosis factor
2. Alterations to genetic code

Question 288

Transgenic organisms:

Knockout organisms

Answer 288

Genomes have been modified

Organisms with 1+ genes deleted, can see which genes are necessary

• ex. cystic fibrosis caused by single mutation that hinders CFTR gene

GMO: genetically modificed in agriculture

Question 289

Independent vs. Dependent variables

Answer 289

Independent: what researcher manipulates (x)

Dependent: what changes in response to x (y)

• dependent cant occur before independent

Question 290

Confounding, mediating, and moderating variables

Answer 290

Confounding: affects both indep and dep variables; potentially obscures relationship b/w them

• ex. cigarette smoking obscures relationship between coffee and cardiovascular disease
  
  • coffee drinkers smoke more cigs
  • cigs –> CVD

Mediating variable: explains counterintuitive relationships b/w indep and dep variables

• ex. median household income –> cancer mortality rate
  
  • mediated by availability of healthcare

Moderating variable: modulates intensity of relationship

• ex. workplace stress –> anxiety/depression
  
  • moderated by exercise

Question 291

Operationalization

Answer 291

process of defining variables in measurable, practical ways

Question 292

Types of Studies

Answer 292

Experimental: researchers manipulate the world in some way

Observational: researchers analyze pre-exisiting patterns of variation to determine relationships

Quantitative: numerical measurements of variables

Qualitative: verbal/open ended measurements of variables

Mixed Method

Question 293

Experimental controls

Answer 293

Negative controls: don’t receive the treatment/intervention of interest

• placebo
• crucial to demonstrate intervention effect

Positive controls: receive a treatment known to induce outcome of interest

• confirm adequacy and competency of procedure

Question 294

Experimental validity

Answer 294

Controls and experimental groups treating the same

randomization: samples randomly allocated to control or treatment groups

blindness: researchers don’t know which sample is control/experimental when doing maintenence

• double blind: neither participants nor researchers know who is in control group

randomized control trial: participants randomized to treatment or control

Question 295

Observational design

cross sectional study:

limitations:

Answer 295

cross sectional study: measuring various stats among a set of people, looking for correlations

• large samples
• study types
  
  • ​opinion poll
  • surveys
  • correlational studies

limitations:

• provide a limited snapshot of a certain population at a certain time, can’t provide info on causality (correlation doesn’t mean causation)
• no info about how things change over time

Question 296

Observational Design

Longitudinal designs

Answer 296

Multiple measurements over time

risk factors: independent variables associated with higher risk of negative outcome

protective factors: independent variables associated with lower risk of negative outcome

cohort studies: group of subjects assembled based on an organizing principle and followed up over time

prospective analysis: data gathered moving forward

restrospective studies: data from past

Question 297

Observational design

Case control studies

Answer 297

Compare cases to controls

cases: individuals with an outcome of interest

• identifying any differences between the two groups might shed light
• used in epidemiology to investigate cause of disease

case study: report on a single case

case series: multiple cases reported

Question 298

Observational designs strength of evidence

Answer 298

Strong: meta analyses: data from multiple studies combined, reanalyzed

systemic reviews: assess outcomes of various studies

randomized controlled trials: experimental

cohort studies

case control

Weakest: case studies/series

Question 299

National Institute of Health 7 principles for Research Ethics

Answer 299

1. Research has social/clincal value
2. Research has scientific validity
3. Principle of fair subject selection
   * participants chosen based on relevance for study’s goals
4. Principle of favorable risk-benefit ratio
5. Principle of independent review
6. Principle of informed consent
7. Respect for potential and enrolled participants

Question 300

Genetic screening

Answer 300

used to identify genetic predictors of various health outcomes

Question 301

Limits on genome-wide association studies

Answer 301

Statistical power is low due to all the potential relationships

Effect size not large enough to motivate public health efforts

Question 302

Causality

Answer 302

Ultimate goal of research

• basic factors for causality:
  
  • association (correlation) between variables
  • Establish that variation in the indep variable precedes variation in dep
  • Plausible mechanism through which possible cause could exert effect
  • Rule out possible mediating outcomes

Question 303

Social structure

Answer 303

Family, education, healthcare, economy, gov’t and religion

Question 304

Sociological theories

micro vs. macrosociology

Answer 304

No right or wrong theory, theories not mutually exclusive

Micro is small scale, macro is large scale interactions

Question 305

Macrosociology

Functionalism

Answer 305

Understanding structures and institutions based on their functions

manifest functions: intended functions for institution

latent functions: unintended functions that are positive

latent dysfunctions: reinforces patterns of social inequality

Could be a matter of opinion -> AUTHORS TONE

Question 306

Macrosociology

Conflict theory

Answer 306

Thought to have originated with Karl Marx but not associated with Marxism/Socialism

Competition for resources between structures or groups

• leads to conflicts and power differentials
• doesn’t necessary require conflict

ex. resources –> college –> economic opportunity

Question 307

Microsociology

Symbolic interactionism

Answer 307

How people interact with symbols

• requires an interaction
• symbols: something we assign meaning to
  
  • has a shared sense of meaning in society

Question 308

Social constructionism

Answer 308

Meaning of social structures/ concepts emerges from how we think and communicate about them

ex. gender roles, love, patriotism

*Tends to be macrosociological when compared to symbolic interactionism

Focuses on constructing the symbols

Question 309

Microsociology

Rational choice theory

Answer 309

Choose actions to maximize the likelihood of accomplishing certain goals

ex. wanting intoxication, taking drugs

How people make choices

Question 310

Microsociology:

Social exchange theory

Answer 310

View social interactions as interchanges with costs and rewards

ex. friendships: invest time and energy and receive benefits like support

** actual interactions

Question 311

Microsociology

Feminist Theory

Answer 311

Goal of understanding and remedying gender injustices

Through focus on lived experiences and objective data

Question 312

unintended consequences of Education

Answer 312

hidden curriculum: things you learn in educational setting that aren’t part of official curriculum

• values, norms, ways of interacting
• positive or negative

segregation: putting different things in different places

• legal segregation of schools
• still present in education systems due to uneven distribution of students based on race, ethnicity, poverty

stratification: arranging things in layers

• levels of socioeconomic status
• people with higher status have more options for access to education system

teacher expectations: may be based on stereotypes and may impact student performance

Question 313

Family

kinship

Answer 313

Family defines early lives

kinship of descent: shared ancestry

kinship of affinity: based off marriage and adoption

primary kin: related through very close bond: parent child, marriage, siblinghood

secondary kin: primary kin of your primary kin

tertiary kin: primary kin of your secondary or secondary of primary

Question 314

Family structure

Answer 314

Vary across cultures. change over time

ex. divorce rates, same sex partners

Violence and abuse can occur: physical, psychological, sexual, neglect

Question 315

Religion

Answer 315

Institution with strongest impact

• function to replicate themselves over time and structure peoples lives

Provide rituals, community, ethical frameworks, important life events

religiosity: how religious a person considers themselves to be

Generally focus on christianity as practiced in Europe

Question 316

Max Weber’s Sociology of religion

Answer 316

Religios organizations exists on a spectrum

churches (stable organized, bureaucratic)

then

denominations (diff interpretations, but same religious context)

then

sects (smaller dissident split off

cults: small tightly controlled and isolated

Question 317

Religious modernizations

Answer 317

Cumulative impact of technological advance from last century

• secularization: decreased religiosity
• fundamentalism: literal, uncomprimising approach to religion

Question 318

Governement organizes society by power and authority

Answer 318

Power: literal ability to get things done and compel certain behaviors

Authority: legitimacy and right of gov’t to structure citizens lives

Question 319

Monarchy

Answer 319

Rulership/sovereignty is passed down in defined succession

• constitutional monarchy - UK
• absolute monarchy

Question 320

Authoritarianism

Answer 320

Citizens have little to no input into gov’t

• soft authoritarianism: have elections, limited choice of candidates
  
  • gov’t minimizes its intrusion into citizens lives, but represses outward forms of dissent

Question 321

Totalitarianism

Answer 321

Gov’t regulates every aspect of life, including citizens communication

Question 322

Democracy

Answer 322

gov’t controlled by voting citizens

• direct: citizens vote for laws themselves
• indirect (democratic republic): citizens vote for representatives who then make laws

Question 323

Capitalism

Answer 323

Private ownership of property and companies

Question 324

Socialism

Answer 324

Collective ownership and distribution

• relies on state regulation
• recognizes private property

Question 325

Communism

Answer 325

More extreme version of socialism, no sectors of economy under private ownership

Question 326

Gov’t/Economic trends

Answer 326

Communism tends to be implemented by authoritarian/totalitarian gov’ts

Western European countries have implemented democratic socialism, allows private enterprise and market activity

Question 327

Capitalism

Answer 327

Usually democratic nations

• Some authoritarian/totalitarian (especially fascists) states

Question 328

Fascism

Answer 328

form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy that rose to prominence in early 20th-century Europe

Question 329

Division of labor

Answer 329

Leads to specialization

• Not all skills equally useful or demanded
• High demand skills
  
  • highly specialized, higher wages
• Low demand skills

Question 330

Medicalization

Answer 330

Treating medical conditions as social and cultural constructs

• addiction: used to be thought as a personal problem, now a medical condition
• modern pregnancy care
  
  • ​cold, clinical, and alienating
  • leads to much lower death rates
• erectile dysfunction: used to be seen as unfortunate part of aging, now a medical condition

Question 331

The “Sick Role”

Answer 331

A role that carries the rights and responsibilites of sick individuals in society

• Reflects social consensus that being sick is not your fault
• Sick people exempt from normal responsibilites

Sick people should typically follow the instructions of their doctors to get better

• exceptions: sometimes societies blame people for their illnesses especially those from lifestyle factors
  
  • diabetes, smokers, obesity

Sick role works better. for acute illnesses than chronic conditions

Sick role not consistent across cultures

Question 332

Medical Institutions

Answer 332

Hospitals: treat spectrum of conditions, inpatients

Doctor’s offices: non-hospitalized patients, outpatients

Acute care clinics

Question 333

Medical ethics

Answer 333

Paternalism: doctor wants to do whats best for patient without informing them

Current paradigm of medical ethics

• Beneficence: acting for patients benefit
• Nonmaleficence: do no harm
• Respect for pt’s autonomy: pt’s make decision even if contradcit medical advice
• Justice: doctors provide care equally and fairly

Question 334

The Illness Experience

Answer 334

Aim to analyze illness as a social construct

• how people experience becoming ill
• the decision of whether to seek care
• the experience of recovery

ex. some people see illness as punishment, others as a challenge

Question 335

Epidemiology

Answer 335

Study of who gets illnesses and distribution patterns (by age, sex, location, behaviors)

• first applied to infectious diseases
  
  • now all diseases

Question 336

Socioeconomic status

Answer 336

Influence on health outcomes

Low SES populations have life expectancy up to 10 years shorter

Question 337

Status and roles

Answer 337

How we situate in groups

status: any social category to identify people - very broad

Question 338

Achieved status, ascribed status, master status

Answer 338

achieved status: status one works to attain, subjective

ascribed status: status assigned involuntarily, not based on actions

master status: status so dominant in someones life it crowds out other statuses

Question 339

Role strain

Role conflict

Role exit

Role engulfment

Answer 339

Role strain: strain brought on by multiple responsibilities from one role

Role conflict: difficulty balancing multiple different roles

Role exit: process of disengaging from a role

Role engulfment: expansion of a role to dominate ones life

• closely related to what one does with energy and time

Question 340

Primary groups

Secondary groups

Peer groups

Family groups

In groups

Out groups

Reference groups

Answer 340

Primary groups: long lasting with deep bonds, not always positive

Secondary groups: short lasting and more superficial

Peer groups: people often similar in age, status, background, interests, usually self selected

Family groups: people defined by genetic relationships and/or marriage/adoption

In groups: categories someone identifies as a member of

Out groups: categories someone doesn’t identify as a member of

• stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination

Reference groups: groups we compare ourselves to (evaluate self w/ reference to that group)

Question 341

Dyads (2 people) less stable than

Answer 341

Triads (3 people)

Question 342

Networks

Answer 342

Relationships b/w people/groups

Question 343

Organizations

Coercive, normative, utilitarian

Answer 343

Subset of groups

• Specific structure
• Defined rules for entering/exiting
• Organization will exist once members are gone

Coercive organizations: people don’t choose to be apart of

Normative organizations: people join out of some shared ideal/ethical goal

Utilitarian organization: people join to make money

Question 344

Types of Organizations

Bureaucracies

Ideal bureaucracy?

Answer 344

Rational, well organized, impersonal and typically large administrative systems

ex. gov’t, hospital, schools, courts

Studied by Max Weber in late 19th century

Ideal:

• Heirarchical
• Well defined roles, chain of command
• Organized by specialization
• Run impersonally
• Recruitment is technical, merit based
• Predictable career paths
• Politically neutral

Question 345

Structural Organizations

Anarchist Collective

Democratic governance

Iron law of oligarchy

Answer 345

Anarchist collective: group w/o bosses with group-based, consensus oriented decision making

Democratic governance: flat organizational structures that minimize heirarchies

Iron law of oligarchy: group starts with democratic decision making will ended up dominated by small group

Question 346

McDonaldization

Answer 346

Organizational approach that focuses on efficiency, calculability, uniformity, technological control

Question 347

Emotional signaling

Answer 347

How we interact with each other; learned in childhood via socialization

• subconcious level: words, tone, facial expression, body language, text
• Physical stimuli and body language that communicate emotions

Difficulty observung emotional signals is sign of autism spectrum disorder

Signaling varies in cultures and b/w different groups

Question 348

emotional signaling experimental findings

Answer 348

Male faces more likely to be interpreted as anger, females as sadness

Womaen may be more sensitive to emotional signals

Question 349

Self Presentation

Self disclosure

Managing appearances

Ingratiation

Aligning actions

Altercasting

Answer 349

Self disclosure: what you disclose to others about yourself

Managing appearances: groom, dress, and act

Ingratiation: attempt to influence another person by becoming more likeable

Aligning actions: presenting your actions in a light that makes them more appealing in a certain setting

Altercasting: project an identity onto someone and then create an expectation that they should act the way you want

• ex. you’re premed so you should …

Question 350

Front stage self vs. back stage self

Answer 350

How we present ourselves in front of audience vs. more authentic self, no longer in front of audience

Question 351

Social Behaviors

Attraction

Answer 351

Sexual and friendly attraction

• physical attractiveness: a social construct, also objectively measurable correlates like facial symmetry
  
  • attractive traits indicate suitability as a mate

Proximity: more likley to be attracted to people we see daily, more exposure effect

Similarity: more likely to be attracted to similar people

Question 352

Social Behavior

Aggression

Impulsive behaviors regulated and restrained by

Answer 352

Defending against threats and obtaining greater access to resources

• used to reinforce and maintain social heirarchies
• testosterone levels in both sexes

Impulsive behaviors regulated and restrained by prefrontal cortex

• stem from emotional arousal mediated by limbic system

Also shaped by ones personal experiences

Molded by society norms and expectations

Question 353

Social Behavior

Attachment

Answer 353

Bonds that form b/w children and their caregivers

• consistent, responsive caregiver leads to secure attachment

ambivalent attachment: inconsistent caregiver, intense distress when they leave

avoidant attachment: neglectful relationship, child doesn’t care

disoriented attachment: abusive caregiver, hesistant contradictory and confused behavior

Question 354

Social Behavior

Altruism

Answer 354

Helping others at some cost to yourself

• puzzling behavior, rational choice theory
• Structured gift giving

Question 355

Social Behavior

Social Support

Answer 355

Emotional, informational, tangible/material support, companionship support

Positive health outcomes

Question 356

Biological explanation for social behaviors in animals

Answer 356

Foraging: how animals search for food; behaviors often learned, economic models can help make sense

Mating: animals have wide range of ways in engaging in courtship, copulating, and raising offspring

• mate choice: can be random, some respond to phenotypic signals (for genetic fitness or seemingly random (Fisherian selection))

Game theory: math that deals with decision making in gamelike scenarios

• ex. prisoners dillema: whoever cooperates gets off, if both do they go to jail, if both don’t nothing happens

Altruism: evolution that focuses on the gene, not the individual

• share genotypes with relatives
• inclusive fitness: natural selection operates at the group level

Question 357

Social facilitation

Answer 357

People perform tasks better in group setting when psychological arousal is higher

• when situation gets too stressful, performance breaks down

Question 358

Social Loafing

Answer 358

People work less hard in a group setting

• others pick up slack
• often not deliberate conscious choice

Question 359

Bystander effect

Answer 359

People tend not to offer help to someone if others present

• diffusion of responsibility in a crowd
• model our behavior based on those around us
• social etiquette

case study: Kitty Genovese murder 1964

Question 360

Deindividualization

Answer 360

Less of sense of self awareness ina large group due to psychological arousal

• lower perceived responsibility - dance clubs, raves
• contributing factors
  
  • anonymity
  • diffused responsibility

Question 361

Group polarization vs. groupthink

Groupthink- pyschologist, associated with what historic event

Answer 361

Group polarization: group of people will arrive at final opinions that are more extreme than the initial positions of the individual members

• initial opinions get amplified
• “echo chambers” effects social media, people interact with similar people
  
  • politics
• contributing factors:
  
  • ​informational influence : people in a group are more likely to press points in line with dominant viewpoint
  • normative influence: our desire to be socially accepted, affirmed or admired within a group
• **Doesn’t have to be irrational, doesn’t require decision-making

Groupthink: irrational decisions made in groups due to pressures towards harmony and individual conformity

• psychologist Irving Janis proposed groupthink to explain Nazi invasion
• characteristics:
  
  • illusion of invulnerability: no serious harm will come to group
  • illusion of morality: unbending belief in the moral righteousness of the groups cause
  • illusion of unanimity: group assumes the majority of opinions in the group are unanimous
  • self censorship: members who disagree dont share opinions
  • pressure of dissenters: pressre not to contradict the majority
  • collective rationalization: group finds reasons to ignore warnings and avoid reconsidering actions
  • excessive stereotyping: negative views of outside opinions
  • mind guards: certain members filer info that could destabilize consensus
• always involve irrational decisions made by group

Question 362

Conformity

Answer 362

Someones behavior, beliefs, or thinking changes to line up with perspectives of others

• someone simply behaving the same way as a a group is not necessarily conformity
  
  • convergence
• Internalization or conversion: genuine change in someone’s beliefs

Question 363

Two kinds of compliance

Identification, Asch experiment

Foot in the door, Door in the face, lowball

Answer 363

Compliance: person conforms but internally dissents

• not the same as compliance to requests
• identification: persons belief change only only in presence of group
  
  • Asch experiment: each subject shown a card with a line and another w/ 3 lines
    
    • which line is same length as first card
    • subjects repeat incorrect answers

Compliance: responses to requests from someone with no power to enforce the request

• marketing and sales pitches are request related compliance
• tactics:
  
  • foot in the door: making a small request followed by a large one
  • door in the face: making a large request you know will be rejevted followed by a small more reasonable one
  • lowball: offer low price and raise it at last minute

Question 364

Obedience

Answer 364

Change in behavior in response to a direct request from someone with power to enforce it

Question 365

Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)

Answer 365

Students either guards or prisoners

• prisoners treated harshly by guards
• prisoners showed real suffering and guards showed sadistic tendencies
  
  • showed how people readily conform to social roles

Question 366

Social Norms

Formal

Informal

Taboos

Answer 366

Rules, spoken or unspoken, that regulate behavior, beliefs, attitudes, and values of members of society

• Formal: encoded somewhere, penalties for violation
• Informal: not written, expectations with no penalties
  
  • Folkways: insignificant informal norms that involve small details
  • Mores: informal norms, incur severe disapproval when violated
• Taboos: even more restrictive norms that generate extreme disapproval
  
  • ex. incest
  • blur line between formal and informal

Question 367

Social control

Sanctions

Peer pressure

Answer 367

The way norms are taught, enforced, and perpetuated

• More general phenomenon
• sanctions: punishment/negative consequences for violating a social norm or reqards for following one
• peer pressure: desire for approval or fear of disapproval

Question 368

Deviance

Answer 368

When someone doesn’t conform to the norms

Question 369

Anomie

Answer 369

lack of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group.

Question 370

Types of deviance: (not mutually exclusive)

Differential Association Theory

Labeling Approach

Primary deviance

Secondary Deviance

Strain Theory

Answer 370

Differential Association Theory: views deviance as behavior that is learned socially

• draws from symbolic interactionism

Labeling Approach: behavior affected by being labeled a deviant

Primary deviance: deviant acts committed before being labeled

Secondary Deviance: deviant acts committed after being labeled

Strain Theory: social and economic pressures towards deviance

Question 371

Socialization

Agents of socialization

Answer 371

How we learn informal and formal norms by interacting with other people/institutions

• agents:
  
  • family
  • educational system
  • mass media
  • peers
  • workplace

Question 372

Fads

Answer 372

New behavior becomes extremely popular, then fades

Question 373

Mass hysteria

Answer 373

Irrational fear of a perceived threat, verging on the point of a collective delusion

Question 374

Riots

Answer 374

Spontaneous episodes of civil disorder

• classic example of deindividuation

Question 375

Percent Yield

Percent Error

Answer 375

Actual/theoretical x 100

Actual -Theoretical /Theoretical x 100

Question 376

ATP

Answer 376

Adenosine Triphosphate - cellular energy

• Protein synthesis, glucose metabolism, intracellular transport
• nucletotide adenine and ribose sugar
  
  • form nucleoside adenosine
• 3 phosphate groups
  
  • alpha, beta, gamma
    
    • gamma is unstable, ATP hydrolysis

Question 377

ATP Hydrolysis

ADP phosphorylation

Answer 377

ATP loses phosphate group and is hydrolyzed to ADP

• Addition of a water molecule
• Releases large amount of energy, highly favorable and spontaneous

ADP phosphorylation unfavorable, nonspontaneous

Question 378

ATP formation

Answer 378

Substrate level phosphorylation

Oxidative phosphorylation

Question 379

Substrate level phosphorylation

Answer 379

Occurs during glycolysis and TCA, involves transfer of phosphate group from a glycolytic intermediate to ADP

• Enzyme catalyzed and coupled with favorable spontaneous reaction to help drive forward the nonspontaneous phosphorylation
• ex.
  
  • ***final step of glycolysis, ADP phosphorylation paired with exergonic cleavage of phosphoenol pyruvate by pyruvate kinase yields pyruvate and ATP
    
    • ***also occurs in citric acid cycle, except forms guanisine triphosphate GTP

Question 380

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Answer 380

Vast majority of ATP in eukaryotes

• Redox reactions involving NADH and FADH₂ electron carriers that feed electrons taken from glycolytic substrates and citric acid intermediates into ETC
• As electrons passed through transport chain, protons pumped from mito matrix into intermembrane space
  
  • electrochemical proton gradient
• Protons return to matrix by diffusing through ATP synthase, forms ATP

**Can only occur in presence of oxygen, terminal electron accptor of transport chain

• Substrate level phosphorylation doesn’t req oxygen

Question 381

Guanosine triphosphate

Answer 381

Produced in citric acid cycle

• Powers biological reactions involved in signaling cascades and protein synthesis

Question 382

High energy bonds in molecules besides ATP and GTP

Answer 382

Thioester bond of Acetyl CoA

Bonds in NADH and FADH₂

Question 383

Electrochemical cells are batteries

Involve

Answer 383

Redox reactions

Question 384

Redox reactions are the

Answer 384

transfer of electrons (OIL RIG)

Reduction: gain of electrons, more bonds to hydrogen

Oxidation: loss of electrons, fewer bonds to hydrogen, more to oxygen

When an atom (usually carbon) gains a bond to oxygen, oxidation has occured

Alkynes most oxidated, alkanes most reduced

Question 385

NAD+ and NADH

Answer 385

When NAD+ is converted to NADH, it gains two things: First, a charged hydrogen molecule (H+) and next, two electrons. As electrons are negatively charged, the combination of the positively charged NAD+ and H+, coupled with two electrons, effectively cancel each other out and neutralize the resulting NADH molecule. This is why NADH does not have a “+” sign next to it.

Question 386

Electron Carriers

Answer 386

NADH and FADH₂

• Reduced versions
  
  • Transfer electrons to protein complexes of ETC
• When reduced, coupled with an oxidation of a different molecule

FADH is semi reduced form

Electron carriers are formed in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and beta-oxidation

Question 387

Electron transport chain

Answer 387

Electron carriers are formed in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and beta-oxidation

• Then they’re oxidized by protein complexes in inner mitochondrial membrane
• Pass their electrons to protein complexes which act as pumps, use energy gained from electron transfers to drive hydrogen ions (protons) against their conc gradient

Proton gradient powers oxidative phosphorylation via ATP synthase

Final electron accpetor in ETC is a diatomic oxygen which is reduced to water

Question 388

Reduction potential E°

Answer 388

Some atoms/molecules want to gain electrons (be reduced) and some want to be oxidized

E°: how bad an atom/molecule wants to be reduced

** the more positive the reduction potential, the more a substance likes to be reduced

• tells us electric potential difference that results from the substance being reduced
• electric potential difference: not the same thing as energy; how energetically favorable reduction is

Question 389

Reduction potential and redox in ETC

Answer 389

When each protein complex in sequence is reduced, it oxidizes the complex that comes before it

• each successive complex has more positive reduction potential, energy is released
  
  • ​wants to be reduced miore
    
    • energy used to pump protons

Question 390

3 biomolecules in human body that can be broken down for energy

Answer 390

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins (to a lesser extent)

Question 391

Glucose monomer is cells predominant source of fuel because

Answer 391

Can be easily stored as glycogen and its catabolism liberates lots of ATP via aerobic respiration

• under anaerobic conditions, glyolysis produces way less ATP

Question 392

Glucose transport

Answer 392

Hydrophilic -> readily diffuse in bloodstream

• too large and polar to diffuse across plasma membrane
• special transmembrane transporters needed
  
  • different types for diff purposes

Question 393

GLUT1 transporter

Answer 393

Nearly all tissues, especially fetal, erthyroctyes, and cancer cells

Baseline cellular uptake, expression increases when glucose is low

Question 394

GLUT2 transporter

Answer 394

Liver, kidney, and pancreatic cells

Bidirectional transport for glycolysis, glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis uptake and export

Question 395

GLUT 3 transporter

Answer 395

Neurons, placenta

High glucose affinity, transports glucose into cell when when extracellular conc is low

Question 396

GLUT4 transporter

Answer 396

Skeletal and cardiac muscle, adipose tissue

Storage as glycogen or triglycerides, upregulated by glucose and insulin

Insulin sensitive

Type 2 diabetes- GLUT4 becomes insensitive to insulin, stops being expressed at normal insulin levels

• difficult to correct blood sugar spikes

Question 397

Resonance in peptide bonds causes:

Answer 397

Planar geometry

Restricted rotation of peptide bonds

Exceptional stability of amides

Question 398

Conjugation (pi systems)

Answer 398

3+ pi orbitals align with each other, electrons delocalize throughout

Absorbs UV light, easily detected by UV sprectroscopy

Question 399

Aromaticity

Answer 399

Electron delocalization

Huckels rule: 4n +2π electrons

• pyridine, pyrimidine, purine all aromatic
  
  • imidazole
  • pyrrole

Question 400

Work

Answer 400

Something accomplished using energy

• measured in Joules
• 1 J = 1 N x m

W = F d or W = Fdcosθ

W = P ∆V

Question 401

Mechanical advantage

Answer 401

Using a mechanical apparatus to perform work using less force

• inclined plane, pulley, seesaw
  
  • for ramps, incline length /incline height gives the amount of force increased by just going vertically

Winput = Woutput

Increasing distance decreases force put in, increases force put out

Question 402

Power

Answer 402

W/t (J/s) Watts

• the faster a system can do more work, the more powerful it is

Question 403

Energy

Answer 403

Capacity of an object to do work

E = KE + PE

• all obj in motion have kinetic energy
• KE = 1/2mv² Joules
  
  • mass in kg

Question 404

Potential energy is stored in an object, comes in many forms

Answer 404

PE_grav= mgh

PE_elastic= energy stored in obj due to compression

• 1/2kx²

Question 405

Conservation of Energy

Answer 405

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, only changed

• all energy creation is conversion from another form

closed system: no energy transfer (as heat)

Question 406

Nonconservative force

Answer 406

Any force that causes energy to be lost from a system to the environment

• Friction and air resistance

Question 407

PE_i + KE_i = PE_f + KE_f

Answer 407

gh_i + 1/2v_i² = gh_f + 1.2v_f² (mass cancels)

Question 408

Work Energy Theorem

Answer 408

W = ∆E

Positive work= work done on an object by its environment, increases objects energy

Negative work= work done by an object on environment, decreases objects energy

Question 409

Consciousness

Answer 409

Awareness that we have of our surroundings, internal states and ourselves

Medical: humans aren’t always conscious

• can vary in terms of degree and quality
  
  • impaired by head trauma, sleeplessness, and substance abuse

Question 410

Levels of awareness

Alertness (what brain structures), tiredness and fatigue

Answer 410

Alertness: increased awareness

• important brain structures: reticular formation and reticular activating system
  
  • reticular formation: complex network of neuron clusters

Tiredness and fatigue: decreased awareness

sleep: temporarily and easily reversed loss of consciousness

Deeper unconscious is not easily reversed

Coma: lost consciousness, doesn’t react normally to stimuli, doesn’t move voluntarily, is not in normal sleep/wake cycle

Question 411

Sleep

Answer 411

Crucial to our ability to live

Chronic low-level sleep deprivation is associated with a range of bad outcomes, poor cognitive perormance, increased risk of obesity, heart disease, diabetes

Question 412

Measuring sleep

Answer 412

Electroencaphelogram (EEG): brain activity

EMG: muscle activity

EVG: eye activity

Polysomnography: sleep study measuring multiple physiological parameters

Question 413

Sleep

Alpha vs Beta waves

Answer 413

Fully awake: beta waves, low frequency, high amplitude

Alpha waves: relaxed, calm, meditation, lower frequency

Question 414

REM sleep (rapid eye movement)

Answer 414

• Quick bursts of eye movement
• Similar brain waves to beta/alpha

atonia: little muscle movement

• irregular breathing, heart rate (interupted homeostasis)
• Majority of dreaming

REM stages get longer as night progresses

Greater total REM sleep = more restful

REM rebound: catch up on REM after missing sleep

Question 415

Non- REM sleep

3 stages

Answer 415

Stage 1:

• theta waves: low frequency and low amplitudes
  
  • slow eye movement, light sleep

Stage 2:

• theta waves with K-complexes: high amplitude bursts
• sleep spindles: occ high freq bursts
  
  • eye motion stops, heart rate and breathing slows

Stage 3

• delta waves: high amplitude
  
  • deep sleep (slow wave)
    
    • memory processing and rest

Question 416

Sleep cycle times for adults and children

Answer 416

Adults have 90 minute cycles, children have 50 minute cycles

Question 417

Regulating sleep

Circadian rhythm

Drowsiness and wakefullness come from?

Answer 417

Circadian rhythm: 24 hr sleep/wake cycles

Pineal gland -> melatonin -> drowsiness

Adrenal cortex -> cortisol -> wakefulness

Question 418

Insomnia

Answer 418

Difficulty falling asleep

Question 419

Narcolepsy

Answer 419

Excessive daytime sleepiness

• abnormal REM sleep
• cataplexy: loss of muscle control, sleep paralysis
• hypnagogic hallucinations

Question 420

Sleep apnea

Answer 420

Airway obstruction during sleep

Question 421

Dyssomnias

Parasomnias

Answer 421

Disorders impairing ability to fall/stay asleep

Parasomnias: disorders involving abnormal behavior while asleep

• sleepwalking (somnabulism)
• night terrors - sleeper suddenly plunged into fight or flight response
• nightmares

Question 422

Dream Content (Freud)

Answer 422

Manifest: surface level details

Latent: underlying meaning

Wish fulfillment: resolution of respressed conflict

Question 423

Activation/synthesis model (dreams)

Answer 423

Neurons activate during REM and synthesize experience

Question 424

Problem-solving theory (dreams)

Answer 424

Dreams as a way of processing/resolving real world problems

Question 425

Cognitive Theory (dreams)

Answer 425

Dreams are a visualization of our cognitive processes

Question 426

Hypnosis

Answer 426

Hypnotist induces a hyper suggestive state in a subject

• extremely responsive to certain suggestions even after session
• Receives considerable skepticism

Question 427

Meditation

Answer 427

Has been a part of religious traditions

• quieting the mind, focusing attnetion
• Beginners experience alpha waves, more experienced practitioners have theta waves

Included in wellness approaches

Question 428

Consciouness altering drugs

Caffeine

Answer 428

Caffeine- stimulant, increase activity in CNS

• mimic sympathetic NS response, fight or flight

Antagonizes (blocks) adenosine (sleepiness) receptors

Question 429

Addiction

Answer 429

Pattern of compulsive behavior that repeatedly engages reward pathway

• behavior persists despite negative consequences
• dependence: absence of drug causes withdrawal symptoms

*biggest difference is compulsion and negative consequences

tolerance: heavy users need more of a drug for same effect

Question 430

Stimulants

Answer 430

Nicotine

Amphetamines

MDMA

Cocaine

Question 431

Nicotine

Answer 431

highly addictive

15% of adults smoke

Question 432

Amphetamines

Answer 432

Increased energy and alterness

• concetration and focus
• appetite reduction
• mood swings, psychosis

Medication for ADHD

Question 433

MDMA

Answer 433

Ecstacy or molly

• empathy and pleasure
• energy, focus, appetite reduction
• Promotes serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine release
  
  • depletes serotonin reserves

Question 434

Cocaine

Answer 434

Strong stimulant, blocks serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine reuptake causing buildup in brain

• often inhaled, processed to smokable form of crack

Question 435

Depressants

Answer 435

Reduce activity in central NS; psychological and physiological effects, lowers heart rate, blood pressure, etc

Alcohol

Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines

Opioids

Endorphins

Hallucinogens

Marijuana

Question 436

Alcohol

Answer 436

Enhances action of GABA receptors (main inhibitory neurotransmitter)

• makes neurons fire less often, slowing brain down
• Low doses reduce conscious inhibitions and planning activity

Higher doses affect speech, motor function, cognition, memory, etc.

• anterograde amnesia: blackouts, inability to create new memories

Long term alcohol use elevates risk of cardiovascular disease/cancer

Once dependent on alcohol, stopping can lead to unpleasant or fatal withdrawal

• hallucination anxiety seizures

Question 437

Alcohol overdose

Answer 437

Breathing stops –> death

acute alcohol intoxication

Question 438

Korsakoff syndrome

Answer 438

Associated with chronic alcoholism

• anterograde amnesia: events starting after syndrome develops
• retrograde amnesia: events before can’t recall

confabulation: invented memories

Question 439

Barbiturates and benzodiazepines

Answer 439

Increase GABA receptor (inhibitory) activity

• Treat anxiety and insomnia
• HIgh risk of overdose, addiction, and withdrawals
• Don’t mix with alcohol

Question 440

Opioids

symptoms, types

Answer 440

Cause sedation, sleepiness, respiratory depression

Pain relief, euphoria

Bind opioid receptors on neurons

morphine: derived from opium poppy

heroin: synthetic morphine derivative

• makes you feel heroic
• thought to be non addictive

Codeine, hydrocodone, oxycodone, fentanyl

Question 441

Endorphins

Answer 441

Produced by body, naturally interact with opioid receptors

Block pain, induce euphoria

• runners high
• morphine and heroin are extremely potent endorphin agonists

Question 442

Hallucinogens

Answer 442

Distort perceptions, enhance sensation, promote introspection

• LSD, ketamine, peyote, psilocybin, PCP
• Complex mechanisms

Question 443

Marijuana

Answer 443

THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) is the psychoactive component of marijuana

• Bind with cannabinoid receptors in brain
• Body naturally produces endocannabinoids
  
  • processes of appetite, mood and pain sensation

CBD: non psychoactive cannabinoid in marijuna

Complex profile of effects- stimulant, depressant, hallucinogenic

Question 444

Addiction

Answer 444

Compulsive behavior that triggers reqard pathway and is repeated pathologically despite negative consequences

• mesolimbic pathway = reward pathway

prefrontal cortex: decision making

nucleus accumbens: dopamine uptake and motivation; associated with otivation and reinforcement learning

amygdala: memory and emotion

ventral tegmental area: dopamine release

Question 445

Dependence

Answer 445

Someone requires a drug to function normally

• more stable than addiction, without the compulsivity
• discontinuing may lead to withdrawal

Question 446

Attention

Answer 446

ability to direct our awareness to a single aspect of external stimuli

Question 447

Selective attention

Answer 447

Can be thought of as a spotlight

focus: full attention

fringe area: no attention

margin: partial attention

Question 448

Donald Broadbent - attention

Answer 448

Basic sensory info enters a sensory buffer

• from the sensory buffer, the mind selects something to focus on and process
  
  • other info decays

Dichotic listening task- only pay attention to audo from one side of the headphones

shadowing: repeating words instantly, no memory component

We process info we are focuing on much more than other info

Question 449

Cocktail Party Effect

Answer 449

Can “tune in” to a particular stimulus, like a name being said from across the room

Background info is processed to some degree even if not the center of focus

Question 450

Treisman Model

Answer 450

Unattended info is attenuated (reduced in intensity)

• intense/important info can come to attention
• explains cocktail party effect

Question 451

Inattentional Blindness

Answer 451

Direct attention causes people to miss things happening in the background

• Invisible gorilla experiment

Question 452

Change Blindness

Answer 452

Failure to notice changes that take place

Question 453

Unattended Stimuli

Answer 453

Color and design might subconsciously affect our mood and behavior

Question 454

Multitasking

Can we do it?

What happens in our brain when we do?

Simultaneous or sequential attention

Answer 454

Most multi tasking is sequential attention (jumping back and forth)

• Might perceive it as simultaneous attention because the switching happens quickly

Multitasking degrades one’s ability to perform complex tasks in comparison to in isolation

We have a certain capacity for attention that we allocate among tasks - proposed by Daniel Kahneman

Question 455

Allport’s module reesource theory

Answer 455

Attention comes from distinct, specialized modules of the brain

Multitasking easier with different types of tasks

Question 456

Controlled processing

Answer 456

Conscious focus on a task

• skills often start out requiring controlled processing

Question 457

Automatic processing

Answer 457

Unconscious work on a task, “autopilot”

• with practice, skills can become automatically processed
• Requires less attention, allows for more multitasking

Question 458

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

3 types

Answer 458

1. Predominantly inattentive

• not paying close attention to details
• Trouble sustaining attention to details
• Easily distracted

2. Predominantly hyperactive
   * impulsive
3. Combined

Question 459

Information processing model

Contrasts what model?

Answer 459

Mind is a computer that receives data, processes some of it, then decides what to do

• contrasts behaviorism: asserted only behavior can be studied scientifically

Question 460

Jean Piaget - developmental psychologist of 20th century

1st developmental stage:

Answer 460

Proposed stages of childhood

1st developmental stage: sensorimotor

• birth to 2 y/o
• interact with world through processing sensory input and engaging in motor activities

Object permanence: things dont go away when you stop seeing them

Circular reactions: repitition of accidental or reactional actions

Stranger anxiety (8 or 9 months): strangers provoke intense worry

Question 461

Jean Piagets developmental stage 2

Answer 461

Preoperational stage: 2 to 7

• represent objects symbolically with words/images

egocentrism: difficulty imaging the world from the perspective of others

centration: tendency to focus on a single property/parameter

ex. taller grass means more water

lack of conservation: same amount of substance is preserved in different shapes

Symbolic thought but minimal abstract reasoning

Question 462

Jean Piagets developmental stage 3

Answer 462

Concrete Operational Stage- 7 to 11

• Develop an understanding of conservation
• Loss of egocentrism
• Develop logical reasoning skills
• Perform better at inductive rather than deductive tasks

Question 463

Jean Piagets developmental stage 4

Answer 463

Formal Operational Stage: 11-16

Abstract logic

Can handle hypotheticals, reason abstractly, and make nuanced moral judgment

• nuanced: subtle shades of meaning or expression

Schema: cognitive framework that organizes info about things that one perceives in the outside world, with implications for the actions that can be taken in response

ex. encounter cow that is yellow; either cant be a cow = assimilation or cows can be different colors accomodation

Question 464

Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence

Answer 464

fluid: problem solving skills that can be applied to new situations without any reliance on previous knowledge

crystallized intelligence: ability to deploy one’s knowledge and skills to solve problems

Question 465

Age

Dementia

hepatic encephalopathy

Answer 465

Cognitive performance an decline with age

dementia: cognitive decline and memory impairments interfere with a person’s ability to function in the world

• multiple symptoms with multiple causes
  
  • causes include Alzheimer’s disease (accumulation of B-amyloid plaques), tiny brain bleeds, etc.

hepatic encephalopathy: liver can no longer effectively remove toxins which impacts brain function

Question 466

Trial and error

Answer 466

Try different options and see what works

• reflects lack of conceptual understanding, used when we have the timeresources to explore many possible solutions

Modern drug design

Thomas Edison

Question 467

Algorithm

Answer 467

Involves applying a fixed set of steps

• designed with preparation and insight
• Application requires no conceptual understanding of the problem

Very specific instructions

ex. having a routine for solving physics problem but not understanding conceptually

Question 468

Deductive reasoning

Answer 468

Top down

Applying general principles to a specific situation

Question 469

Inductive reasoning

Answer 469

Bottom up

Successive observations extrapolated to identify general principles

• vulnerable to overgeneralizations

Question 470

Analogies

Problem solving

Answer 470

Used to solve a porblem similar to one we’ve seen before

• closely related to intuition

Question 471

Intuition

Answer 471

Gut sense of how to solve a problem

• corresponds to analogies that we aren’t consciously aware of

Question 472

Mental set

Answer 472

The framework that we use for conceptualizing a problem and trying to solve it

Question 473

Fixation

Functional fixedness

Answer 473

Getting stuck in existing ways of thinking about things

Functional: tendency to see objects as only having a certain function

Question 474

Belief perserverance

Answer 474

Maintaining or strengthing beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence

Question 475

Cognitive processes can be impeded by

Answer 475

cognitive biases: systemic, generally subconscious patterns of thought that skew reasoning

Question 476

Confirmation bias

Answer 476

Reasoning in a way that favors info supporting our preexisting conclusions/beliefs

ex. more likely to notice news we agree with

Question 477

Cell Cycle two parts:

Answer 477

Interphase

Mitosis