3 Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Why are there 2 phases of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway if the oxidative phase produces both NADPH and ribose 5-phosphate?

Answer

A

Some cells don’t need both of these products, only one

ex. Liver cells and adipocytes need lots of NADPH but not ribose 5-phosphate, not constantly replicating their DNA

Oxidative phase produces a set ratio

Ribulose 5-phosphate gets shunted into non oxidative phase

Question 2

Q

Non-oxidative phase of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Answer

A

Recylces Ribulose 5-phosphate back to the oxidative phase (into G6P)

1. Begins with 6 molecules of Ribose-5-phosphate
1. Get converted into 5 molecules of Ribose 6-phosphate
1. Easily converted to glucose 6-phosphate

Also produces glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which can enter glycolysis

Question 3

Q

Diabetes Mellitus

Answer

A

Metabolic disorder marked by improper glucose uptake by cells and high blood glucose levels

can lead to CVD, sudden weight loss, chronic kidney disease, impaired eyesight
30 million+ americans (10% of population)

Body fails to produce insulin (reuptake of blood glucose into cells)

Question 4

Q

Role of Insulin

What is insulin produced by and where?

What kind of hormone?

Answer

A

Peptide hormone that causes reuptake of glucose into cells from bloodstream

Produced by Beta cells in the pancreas
- released into bloodstream when glucose levels are high, tells cells to absorb it

Question 5

Q

How does pancreatic insulin release work?

Where is insulin stored?

Answer

A

Glucose enters pancreatic beta cells through special transporter protein called GLUT2

once inside, glucose proceeds through glycolysis and pyruvate products enter citric acid cycle
- causes ATP:ADP ratio to increase

High ATP levels cause an ATP-sensitive potassium channels to slam shut, building up potassium in cell

reduces electric potential difference across cell membrane, causing voltage gated calcium channels to open allowing Ca in the cell

Causes Endoplasmic Reticulum to open its own calcium channels releasing more Ca ions into cytoplasm

insulin is stored in vesicles in the plasma membrane
- Once cytoplasmic calcium reaches a certain level, vesicles fuse with plasma membrane and release

Question 6

Q

Insulin release from pancreatic B cell summary

Answer

A

Glucose is used to produce ATP

Causes a potassium buildup that triggers an influx of Calcium

Calcium is the stimulus for insulin release from secretory vesicles

Question 7

Q

What is calcium used for

Answer

A

Pancreatic insulin release, muscle contraction

Question 8

Q

Stimulants of insulin release

(Don’t need to know)

Answer

A

High blood glucose levels

- Acetylcholine: main neurotransmitter of parasympathetic NS

Arginine and Leucine amino acids
Pancreatic beta cells stimulated by digestive enzyme cholecystokinin

Question 9

Q

Inhibition of Insulin release

Answer

A

Norepinephrine- stress hormone inhibits insulin, FIGHT OR FLIGHT

increases blood glucose levels

Question 10

Q

Insulin responsive tissues

Do all cells need insulin to get glucose? which don’t?

Answer

A

Body cells that express receptors for insulin that insulin can interact with

Skeletal, cardiac muscle and fat cells

Insulin binds to receptors, activating GLUT4 transporters which fuse with membrane allowing glucose to move into the cell

**NOT all cells depend on insulin to get glucose

Liver and brain cells require so much that they get it themselves from the bloodstream

Question 11

Q

Different effects of insulin in the body

Answer

A

Glucose uptake

Glycogen metabolism

Lipid metabolism

Protein metabolism

Question 12

Q

Insulin affect on glycogen metabolism

Answer

A

Upregulates glycogen synthesis in liver
Inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Question 13

Q

Insulin affect on lipid metabolism

Answer

A

Promotes lipid storage by increasing triglyceride synthesis

tells adipocytes to absorb more fatty acids from lipoproteins circulating in the blood
- links them with glycerol

Opposes breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acid components by downregulating lipolysis

Question 14

Q

Insulin affect on protein metabolism

Answer

A

Insulin prevents proteolysis
Insulin absorbs amino acids to build new proteins

Stimulates protein synthesis

Question 15

Q

Type 1 Diabetes

How is it triggered?

What is the correction

Answer

A

Immune system destroys pancreatic Beta cells

body can’t produce any insulin or to a lesser extent

Genetic risk factors, onset also triggered by environmental factors

**Require synthetic insulin to survive

Question 16

Q

Type 2 Diabetes

Answer

A

Body loses the ability to respond to insulin

insulin resistance
- Blood glucose levels too high

Brought on by lifestyle factors: obesity, stress, poor diet, lack of exercise

Can often recover in early stages with lifestyle changes, but may eventually need synthetic insulin as well

Question 17

Q

Role of Glucagon

Answer

A

Opposite of insulin

Peptide hormone synthesized in pancreas by ALPHA CELLS

Secreted when too little glucose in blood –> actually respond to low insulin levels

high insulin levels inhibit glucagon production + release

Binds to glucagon receptors; increases blood glucose conc

Question 18

Q

Affect of Glucagon on Glycogen metabolism

Answer

A

Promotes glycogenolysis and gluconeogenosis

Inhibits glycogenesis

Question 19

Q

Effect of Glucagon on lipid metabolism

Answer

A

Glucagon promotes lipolysis: triglyceride breakdown

activates protein kinase A which activates hormone sensitive lipases in adipose tissue

Increases fatty acid conc in blood

glycerol can also be used for energy in liver and kidneys

Question 20

Q

Effect of glucagon on protein metabolism

Answer

A

Inhibits protein synthesis and allows proteins to be broken down

amino acids can be taken up by liver cells for new glucose molecules via gluconeogenesis

Question 21

Q

More stable nucleotide pairing? Why?

Answer

A

Cytosine and guanine, 3 H-bonds instead of 2

Question 22

Q

Nucleotides are joined by

Answer

A

Phosphodiester bonds

Sugar phosphate backbone

Question 23

Q

Is RNA or DNA more stable and why

Answer

A

RNA is less stable, only one strand and OH groups causes instability

exception: RNA hairpin loops, double stranded RNA viruses

Question 24

Q

What is “Melting temp T_m” of DNA

Answer

A

Temp that 50% of strands are denatured, DNA with more G-C bonds have higher Tm

use heat or chemical (like urea)

Question 25

Q

Annealing

Answer

A

Reverse of denaturing DNA where complementary bases bond again

Question 26

Q

DNA has grooves: major and minor

Answer

A

Binding sites for transcription factors

Question 27

Q

B-DNA

A-DNA

Z-DNA

Answer

A

B-DNA: most common conformation discovered by Watson and Crick; 10.5 base pairs per double helix turn

A-DNA: tighter, more condensed

Z-DNA: left handed, less condensed

Question 28

Q

Central Dogma

Answer

A

DNA ==> transcription ==> RNA ==> translation ==> protein

Question 29

Q

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase

Answer

A

DNA is source of heritable info

Viruses incubated with radioactive sulfur (protein) and phophorus (DNA)
- DNA was passed onto bacteria

Question 30

Q

Messenger RNA mRNA

Answer

A

Template to synthesize protein

Question 31

Q

Heterogenous Nuclear RNA (hnRNA)

Answer

A

Precursor to mRNA

Question 32

Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Answer

A

Transfers amino acids to growing polypeptide chain

unique clover leaf structure
recognizes specific codons on mRNA to incorporate amino acids they code for into the protein

Question 33

Q

Ribosomal rRNA

Answer

A

Synthesized in nucleolus, essential role in translation

some act as ribozymes (enzymes)

Question 34

Q

small interfering RNA (siRNA) and miRNA inhibit

Answer

A

Gene expression (production of proteins)

Question 35

Q

Reverse transcriptase enzyme

Answer

A

Transcribes RNA into DNA

helps viruses propagate

Question 36

Q

20 amino acids created from 4 bases is possible due to

Answer

A

Reading aminos in groups of 3: codons

- 4³ = 64 codons

Question 37

Q

Degenerate genetic code

Answer

A

More than 1 codon can encode 1 amino acid

Question 38

Q

Start codon

Stop codon

Answer

A

AUG (Met)

UAA, UAG, UGA

Question 39

Q

Wobble hypothesis

Answer

A

First two codons usually conserved, 3rd has wobble room

Question 40

Q

Conservative DNA replication (theory)

Answer

A

DNA molecule duplicated, orginal molecule conserved

Question 41

Q

Semiconservative DNA replication (true)

Answer

A

DNA strand separates and each strand serves as template for new

Question 42

Q

Dispersive DNA replication (theory)

Answer

A

DNA backbone broken and new molecule has sections of old and new (Double strand)

Question 43

Q

Meselson-Stahl Experiment (to discover how DNA is replicated)

Answer

A

E. coli grown in media with ¹⁵N isotope
DNA moved into media with ¹⁴N and allowed to replicate
DNA extracted and centrifuged (¹⁵N heavier); new molecules had intermediate density
* could be dispersive or semiconservative
DNA extracted again after more replication, centrifuged and intermediate as well as ¹⁴N bands appeared
* rules out dispersive, = semiconservative

Question 44

Q

Prokaryote DNA replication

Answer

A

One origin of replication; sequence recognized by prereplication complex

Replication proceed in both directions along chromosome

Question 45

Q

Steps of Eukaryote DNA replication

Answer

A

S PHASE OF CELL CYCLE

Multiple origins of replication
Replication produces identical sister chromatid connected to DNA molecule at centromere of chromosome

Unwinding of double helix by helicase enzyme at replication fork
single stranded DNA binding proteins prevent separated strands from rejoining
Topoisomerase enzyme (DNA gyrase) relieves supercoiling caused by helicase by making incisions in one of the strands, uncoiling and rejoining
Primase initiates DNA replication by synthesizing short RNA primer; RNA primer has free 3’ hydroxyl group used as starting point for synthesis of new strand

Okazaki fragments on lagging strand
- Ligase bridges gap between fragments

DNA polymerase: travels along separated strand and adds nucleotides in 5’ –> 3’ direction
* reads DNA 3’ to 5’

Question 46

Q

Prokaryotic DNA polymerase

Answer

A

DNA pol I: removes RNA primer, replaces primer with DNA, repairs DNA

DNA pol II: repairs DNA

DNA pol III: synthesizes new DNA and proofreads DNA via 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity

Question 47

Q

Eukaryotic DNA polymerase

Answer

A

DNA pol α: initiates DNA synthesis

DNA pol δ: synthesizes new DNA and replaces RNA primer with DNA

DNA pol ε: extends leading strand and repairs DNA

DNA pol β: repairs DNA

DNA pol γ: replicates mitochondrial DNA

Question 48

Q

Telomerase

Answer

A

Extends telomeres; RNA dependent DNA polymerase

repetitive sequences at ends of eukaryotic chromosomes
otherwise ends would get shorter and shorter –> aging

Germ cells, stem cells, and cancer cells have telomerase

Question 49

Q

How many chromosomes?

Autosomes are?

Answer

A

23 linear pairs, 46 individual

22 autosomes: homologous pairs, 22 inherited maternally and matching 22 inherited paternally

23rd is XY sex chromosomes

Question 50

Q

How is DNA packaged?

Answer

A

Nucelosome: Basic subunit of DNA packaging; 200 bp wrapped around histone proteins

histones further condensed into chromatin fiber

Chromatin further condensed into loop domains and then chromosomes

Question 51

Q

Chromsome structure

Answer

A

P arm (petite), Q arm and then centromere connecting sister chromatids

Question 52

Q

Heterochromatin vs Euchromatin

Answer

A

Heterochromatin: tightly coiled, dense form; hard to access DNA

Euchromatin: loose, spaghetti like configuration

allows DNA to be readily replicated and transcribed

Question 53

Q

Chromatin configuration has to do with

Acetylation of chromatin (what enzyme?)

Answer

A

Chromatin configuration has to do with CHARGED attraction between DNA and histone proteins

DNA phosphate groups negative, histone proteins positive at histone tails

Interaction is regulation by enzymes that add/remove acetyl groups from (+) charged lysine at the end of histone tailed

Acetylation: masks histone tails positive charge - promotes looser confirmation = euchromatin
- histone acetyltransferase

Histone deactelyase to go back to heterochromatin

Question 54

Q

98.8% of gene is noncoding

How do we produce 2 million unique proteins?

Answer

A

44% transposons, 24% introns and regulatory sequences, 15% noncoding DNA, 15% repetitive DNA

Alternative splicing, transcriptional and posttranscriptional modifications

Question 55

Q

Variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) and short tandem repeats (STRs)

Answer

A

of repeats of sequences in DNA varies in people, used for DNA fingerprinting

Question 56

Q

Single nucleotide polymorphism

Answer

A

Differences in one nucleotide at a specific location between different people

Question 57

Q

Transposons

Class I and Class II

Answer

A

50% of genome; “jumping genes” sequences can jump to other parts of genome

Class I (copy and paste): DNA sequences transcribed to RNA then code reverse transcriptase enzyme
1. uses RNA template to make DNA copy and inserts itself somewhere else in genome
Class II (cut and paste): enzyme splices sequence from DNA and it moves elsewhere

Thought to increase genetic diversity and evolution

Question 58

Q

Centromeres

Answer

A

Contain blocks of repetitive DNA sequences rich in GC base pairs, tightly packed to maintain structural integrity

Question 59

Q

Cell Cycle

M phase

M/spindle checkpoint

Answer

A

Mitosis or meiosis, cell division

spindle checkpoint: chromosomes attached to microtubule fibers

DNA is packaged as heterochromatin

Question 60

Q

Cell Cycle

Interphase (G₁, S, G₂)

Answer

A

90% of cycle, cell growth, organelle duplication, protein synthesis, DNA replication

DNA is packaged as euchromatin so proteins can be produced and allow transcription/translation

G₁ phase: cell grows, protein synthesized
- G₁ checkpoint: Resting phase during G1 phase, can last indefinitely
  - if not enough nutrients during G1 checkpoint
  - Neurons, nonmitotic cells
S phase: DNA replication, # of chromosomes remains the same
G₂ phase: more growth
- G₂ checkpoint: DNA completely replicated/undamaged

Question 61

Q

Cyclins

Answer

A

Present at each stage of cell cycle (specialize), levels are cyclical and spike when its time to use them

when at high levels, bind and activate cyclin dependent kinases which phosphorylate and activate proteins which promote activity of a certain phase

Question 62

Q

Mitosis

Answer

A

Cell division, makes two identical copies of a cell

Occurs in somatic cells (all cells in body but germ cells)
4 phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase (PMAT)

Question 63

Q

Prophase

homologous chromosomes

Answer

A

Nuclear envelope disintegrates
Nucleoli disappear (dense regions that assemble ribosomes)
DNA condenses into tightly packed chromatin

homologous chromosomes: pair of maternal and paternal copies of same chromosome

not identical like sister chromatids
diff alleles of same genes

Question 64

Q

kinetochore

Answer

A

Complex of proteins assembled on centromere - where spindle fibers attach during metaphase which forms mitotic spindle

pull sister chromatids apart

Answer 65

A

Centrosomes: 2 cylindrical centrioles which are made up of microtubule fibers, where spindle fibers come from

2 at each pole of cell

Answer 66

A

Chromsomes organized along metaphase plate

cell must pass M checkpoint: chromosomes properly arranged and attached to mitotic spindle

Answer 67

A

Chromosomes fail to separate normally resulting in abnormal distribution in daughter cells

leads to aneuploidy: having extra or missing chromosomes

Answer 68

A

Microtubule fibers pull apart sister chromatids

Answer 69

A

Nuclear envelope and nucleoli reappaear for each daughter cell

Answer 70

A

Cytoplasmic division of a cell

mediated by myosin and actin proteins

Create cleavage furrow

Answer 71

A

Sexual reproduction that generates gametes (egg and sperm cells)

wants genetically variable daughter cells unlike mitosis
produces 4 daughter cells with half the chromosomes of parents (haploid, 23 chromosomes)

Only occurs in germ cells

produce ova and sperm via oogenesis and spematogenesis

2 rounds of division, PMAT

Answer 72

A

Maternal and paternal copies of each chromosome (homologous chromosomes, 4 sister chromatids) = synapsis

forms tetrads
alleles differ
chiasmata: points where homologs cross over genetic info

Answer 73

A

23 homolog pairs line up randomly

daughter cells get some maternal and some paternal DNA

Random/independent assortment

Answer 74

A

2 chromosomes in pair are separated to opposite poles (become sister chromatid pairs)

Daughter cells contain 23 chromosomes

Answer 75

A

Cell splits into haploid daughter cells

chromosomes still paired with identical copies

Answer 76

A

Just like mitosis

1. Prophase II: nuclear envelope breaks down

2. Metaphase II: 23 chromosomes align along metaphase plate

3. Anaphase II: sister chromatids pulled apart

Telophase II: nuclear envelope reforms and cytokinesis

Answer 77

A

amps

Kelvin

seconds

meters

kilograms

moles

Answer 78

A

ex. Hertz, Newton, Pascal

Answer 79

A

s^-1

Frequency

Answer 80

A

kg x m/s²

Force

Answer 81

A

N/m²

Pressure

1 atm = 101,325 Pascal

Answer 82

A

N x m

Energy, Work, Heat

Answer 83

A

A x s or A = C/s

Electric charge

Answer 84

A

J/C

Electric potential

Answer 85

A

C/A

Capacitance

Answer 86

A

Volts/Ampere

Resistance

Answer 87

A

Newtons/ Amperes x meters

Magnetic field

Answer 88

A

1.6 km

30 cm

5 cm
5 Newtons

4 L

4000 J ~ 1 kcal

Answer 89

A

Magnitude and direction

displacement
velocity
acceleration
force
magnetic/electrical fields
bond dipoles

Subtracting vectors: reverse the vector being subtracted

Answer 90

A

No direction, just magnitude

temperature
loudness
distance
speed

Answer 91

A

Displacement / time

m/s

Answer 92

A

Velocity / time

m/s²

Answer 93

A

Slope = velocity

change in slope = ∆v = acceleration

Answer 94

A

Slope = acceleration

Area under curve = displacement

Answer 95

A

Area = velocity

Answer 96

A

Study of motion w/ reference to forces involved

Answer 97

A

d = v_avg x time v_avg = (v_i+ v_f / 2)

a = ∆v / t

v_f = v_i + at

Answer 98

A

d = v_it + .5 at²

v_f² = v_i² + 2ad

Answer 99

A

v_i = 0

a = g

d = y

d = v_it + .5gt² or v_f = √2gy

Answer 100

A

Force due to air resistance eventually balances out due to gravity

terminal velocity: object no longer accelerating

Answer 101

A

Only force acting on object is gravity; no horizontal acceleration, force stopped acting on object when enters arc

Movment in x and y direction function independently
**Time is connector between x and y components
Projectile has some initial vertical velocity

v_x = v_icosθ d_x = v_xt

v_y = v_isinθ v_y = 0 at top of curve

then use kinematic eqns v_f² = v_i² + 2ad_y

Answer 102

A

Push or pull causes obj to accel

1 N = kg x m/s²

^{Fundamental forces:}gravity, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, weak nuclear

Answer 103

A

force between two contacting surfaces

Answer 104

A

force that resists movement

f_friction = u N

u = coeff or friction

N = normal force

Answer 105

A

pulling force exerted by a string or rope

Answer 106

A

Force that causes something to move in a circular path or elliptical path

can be electromagnetic or gravitational

Answer 107

A

Stretched or compressed

elastic force

F_spring= kx

k = spring constant (stiffness), x = distance

Answer 108

A

Law of Inertia

in the absence of external force, a body will remain in motion or rest

Resistance to acceleration

More mass = more inertia

Answer 109

A

Acceleration is proportional to net force

F_net = ma

connects energy and movement

Answer 110

A

Every action has equal and opposite reaction

Answer 111

A

Conserve energy, path-independent

*only concern final and initial states
energy not lost to environment

ex. Gravity, electrostatic, magnetic, spring, pushing/pulling

Answer 112

A

Dissipate energy, path dependent

friction, air resistance, viscosity

F = mg

Gm₁m₂ / r²

Gravitational force between two masses

Answer 113

A

Electromagnetic force between two charges not moving relative to each other

In a uniform electric field: F = qE
non uniform EF: F = k (Q₁ q₂) /r²
- Coulombs law
- k = constant
- Q1 and q2 are charges

Answer 114

A

Spring forces

F = k∆x

k= stiffness of spring

Answer 115

A

Genes, hormones, neurotransmitters

Physical processes

Answer 116

A

The brain working as a whole

Emotions, attitudes, memories, cognition, personality

Answer 117

A

Happiness
Surprise
Sadness
Fear
Disgust
Contempt
Anger

Answer 118

A

Complicated systems - making sense of society

lots of different perspectives
- Social constructionism
- Symbolic interactionism
- Functionalism
- Conflict theory

Difficulty using experiments - retrospective study designs, cross sectional designs; present moment relationships

qualitative research, words not numbers

Answer 119

A

Notion placed on an object/event by society

Answer 120

A

Use of verbal, written, or physical communication and subjective understanding

Answer 121

A

All of society should serve a function for the society

Answer 122

A

Society is in perpetual conflict for limited resources

Answer 123

A

behavior passed through culture

Answer 124

A

Trait which promotes reproductive success

Answer 125

A

How an individual responds behaviorally and emotionally to stimuli from the world

Answer 126

A

Non-genetic influences
- ex. family wealth, stress, endocrine-disrupting compounds, complex family relationships

Genes expressed more or less with environmental stimuli

Experience shapes behavior

DNA promoters that initiate expression and regulatory genes for proteins could vary in people

ex. allele in gene for promoting serotonin (5HT-T) makes people susceptible to depression

Answer 127

A

Trying to characterize the heritability of a trait

heritability: degree of variation in a trait due to variation in the genotype

(how much a trait is determined by genes alone

Twin studies monozygotic and dizygotic

Adopted children - genetics of real parent but environment of foster

Answer 128

A

Trouble metabolising phenylalanine

Buildup causes cognitive impairment
Low phenylalanine diet is best treatment

Answer 129

A

Changes to genome that don’t involve changing actual nucleotide content

ex. methylation of cytosine, silences specific genes
- stress, exercise, heritable

Answer 130

A

Pregnancy lasts 37-41 weeks, 3 trimesters

First trimester: major structures of fetus formed
Second trimester: fetus grows
Third trimester: getting swole

At 12 weeks, fetus organ architecture formed

Prenatal development:

Umbilical cord connected to placenta: highly vascular bed of tissue, brinds fetal and maternal circulation in proximity to exchange nutrients, gases, waste
Maternal malnutrition and smoking can harm fetal development
- Stress, anxiety, depression

Answer 131

A

Palmar grasp reflex: baby grasps anything touching its palm

Rooting: infant searches for object touching mouth/cheek

Sucking: automatically sucks when something touches top of mouth

Moro reflex: in response to sudden movement/loud sounds; baby extends arms, throws back head and cries

Babinski reflex: toes stretch out when foot is tickled

Answer 132

A

0-12 months
- Walking ~ 1 year
- Motor: standing w/ assistance, crawling, holding toys
- Social: primary caregiver, solitary, stranger anxiety, object permanence
- Linguistic: laughing, bubbling, simple words
12-24 months
- Physical independence: walking, climbing, drawing, throwing, stacking
- Social/linguistic: terrible twos, sense of self, boundaries (none)
3+ years
- More complex/mature behavior, toilet training, awareness of gender
- Further language development

Answer 133

A

Time when experiences imprint life-long effects

Language development is critical

Answer 134

A

12-19 years

Cognitive, social , behavioral changes

Answer 135

A

Puberty: biological changes

earlier in females, menarche is landmark (first menstruation)
development of secondary sex characteristics
- pubic hair, breasts and wider hips, facial hair and adams apple
  - fat and muscle distribution different between sexes

All orchestrated by sex hormones- testosterone and estradiol

Obesity affects hormone exposure, earlier puberty

Answer 136

A

Prefrontal cortex develops until ~25

Responsible for rational decision making
Neuronal axons in prefrontal cortex covered in myelin sheaths, transmit signals faster

Answer 137

A

Degradation of telomeres

limits cell division
Gradual physical devline, more prone to disease
mental processing slows and fluid intelligence

Answer 138

A

Knowledge accumulated over time

Remains stable
Elderly considered wise

Answer 139

A

Fluid intelligence is the ability to think abstractly, reason quickly and problem solve independent of any previously acquired knowledge.

Answer 140

A

Fluid regulation, metabolism, blood-glucose and calcium levels

One of two physical systems that regulates BEHAVIOR

Network of organs that secrete signalling molecules into the bloodstream (hormones)

some cause direct changes, some cause release of other hormones
- tropic hormones: target other endocrine glands, helps with control of systems

Answer 141

A

target other endocrine glands, helps with control of systems

Answer 142

A

Endocrine system from brain southward; higher glands regulate lower ones

Hypothalamus: converts input from nervous system into endocrine signals
- hypo = low, below thalamus in forebrain, above pituitary gland

Hypothalamus releases high level hormones to the pituitary gland, where other tropic hormones released

ex. GnRH (gonadotropic releasing hormone, triggers LH and FSH reproductive hormones)
CRF- promotes ACTH which releases cortisol from adrenal glands

Answer 143

A

Pituitary glands

Anterior pituitary: receives input from hypophyseal portal system (connecting blood vessels, hormones)
- Releases Luteinizing Hormone, (LH)
- Follicle Stimulating hormone, (FSH)
- thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Prolactin (milk production)
- Endorphins (reduce perception of pain)
- Growth hormones
Posterior pituitary: controlled by hypothalamus via neuronal signals instead of hormonal
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates fluid balance
  - diabetes insipidus: inability to regulate fluid balance
- Oxytocin (labor)

Answer 144

A

Located in the throat

Releases thyroid hormone which affects metabolism and behavior

Answer 145

A

Abdomen, less important behaviorally

Answer 146

A

Above kidneys

2 distinct areas:

Cortex: secretes cortisol and mediates chronic stress response
Medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine, and flight or fight response

Answer 147

A

Secrete estrogen and testosterone

Answer 148

A

Hypothalamus

Pituitary glands: antieror and posterior

Thyroid and parathyroid

Pancreas

Adrenal glands

Ovaries and testes

Answer 149

A

Promote libido, interest in sexual behavior (sex drive)

testosterone associated with aggression
both sexes secrete some of both

Answer 150

A

Labor contractions, latation, social bonding (affection, mood)

primary examble of positive feedback, more oxytocin leads to more contractions which leads to more oxytocin
antidepressant, orgasms

*Produced by hypothalamus, secreted by pituitary gland

Answer 151

A

Induces lactation

Stress response, anxiety, depression, contributor to post-partum depression

Produced by anterior pituitary gland

Answer 152

A

Secreted by pineal gland in brain

induces sleep
blue light suppresses melatonin production

Answer 153

A

Both produced in hypothalamus:

Leptin: reduces hunger, released by adipocytes (fat cells)

also has roles in reproduction, immune system, obesity

Ghrelin: promotes hunger, released by cells in gastrointestinal tract when stomach is empty (stomach growl –> ghrelin)

learning, mood, sleep, reproduction

Neuropeptide Y (NPY): stimulates appetite

Answer 154

A

ADRENAL GLANDS

epinephrine and norepinephrine: secreted by adrenal medulla

acute stress response, fight or flight
also secreted by neurotransmitters

cortisol: released by adrenal cortex, chronic stress response

increases blood sugar

Answer 155

A

Promotes metabolism

hypo/hyperthyroidism:

hypo- fatigue and depression
hyper - irritability

Answer 156

A

Stimuli –> perception –> response

Answer 157

A

Consists of dendrites: receive input from other nerves/organs

Soma

Axon: action potential travels down from dendrites

Axon terminal

Answer 158

A

-70 mV

Stimuli REDUCES electric potential difference, -55 mV causes action potential fire

Answer 159

A

Travels down axon to axon terminal

releases neurotransmitters at the synapse

synapse: space between one neuron and another (or target cell)

Answer 160

A

Automatic behaviors that occur in response to certain stimuli

Reflex arc: simple neural pathways that control reflexes

ex. Patellar reflex, sensory neuron stretches from knee to spine
- motor neuron signals back down to quadricep muscle

Synapse between motor neuron and muscle is neuromuscular junction

motor neuron releases neurotransmitter acetylcholine which causes muscle to contract

Answer 161

A

AFFERENT neurons, carry info about stimuli to CNS

EFFERENT neurons, signal effect to target cells

SAME, sensory afferent motor efferent

Answer 162

A

Push the membrane potential difference in either direction

Neurons geneally receive multiple signals, the SUM of inputs decide whether it will fire action potential

excitatory: depolarizes membrane of target neuron, easier for signal to travel (higher mV, -70 to -55)

inhibitory: hyperpolarizes target neuron, less likely to send signal

Answer 163

A

Bind to receptors that open up ion channels

High specificity to different signals –> receptor subtypes
- different receptors in diff neurons

ex. serotonin can have excitatory or inhibitory effect

Answer 164

A

Neurotransmitter, muscle contractions

also communicates signals between central NS and autonomic NS
sends signals from parasympathetic neurons to target

Answer 165

A

Neurotransmitter; excitatory, depolarizes neurons

most common neurotransmitter, 90% of neuronal connections in brain
- learning and memory

Opposite of GABA

Answer 166

A

Neurotransmitter, inhibitory

Opposite of glutamate, hyperpolarizes neurons
- slow or block certain signals in the brain

Answer 167

A

Neurotransmitter; reward pathways and addiction

increased by psychoactive drugs, euphoria
mediates motor functions
loss of dopamine-secreting neurons in substantia nigra leads to Parkinsons disease

Answer 168

A

Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, intestinal movement

current hypothesis is depression associated with low serotonin

Antidepressants: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

prevent serotonin from being taken up by neurons, stays in synapse longer

Answer 169

A

Neurotransmitter; suppress pain and produce euphoria

Answer 170

A

Agonists: Compound that activates a certain receptor, causing a response

partial agonists: not as strong

Antagonists: bind receptor but don’t cause a response, prevents neurotransmitter from being able to exercise its affects

Answer 171

A

Extending nerves from brain and spinal cord to everywhere else

somatic and autonomic

Answer 172

A

Voluntary acitivities, efferent motor nerves and sensory afferent nerves

Answer 173

A

Unconcious activities

digestion, heart rate, breathing, pupil dilation, urination
ddivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic

Answer 174

A

Fight or flight response to acute stress

mobilizes resources to deal with emergency now
HR increases, epinephrine released, more resources to muscles
Pupils dilate, start sweating

Also suppresses unnecessary functions like digestion, slows paralstalsis

tunnel vision, less likely sexual arousal

Answer 175

A

Rest and digest response

blood vessels restrict supply to muscles, dilate in digestive tract
promotes digestion, salivation, urination, defecation, lacrimination (tear production), sexual arousal

Answer 176

A

Regulates activity of the gut

Answer 177

A

Brain and spinal cord

Answer 178

A

Advanced functions like reasoning

Diencephelon: contains thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland
- thalamus: relays sensory and motor signals
  - regulates sleep and alertness
- hypothalamus: bridge between NS and endocrine system
- Pituitary gland: releases hormones
Telencephalon:
- cerebrum: cerebral cortex and subcortical structures
  - cerebral cortex: right and left hemispheres
  - subcortical structures: LIMBIC SYSTEM
    - olfactory bulbs: detecting odors
    - hippocampus: consolidates short term memory into long term
    - basal ganglia: eye movement, voluntary movement, habitual learning

Answer 179

A

In between, vision and eye movement

Inferior colliculus: auditory input (not the primary place)
Superior colliculus: visual input (not the primary place)
Substantia nigra: neurons communicate with dopamine for voluntary movements

Midbrain and medulla oblongata + pons form the Brainstem, physical support for the brain

Answer 180

A

Basic functions like breathing

Cerebellum: forms distinct structure at the base of the brain
- coordinates movement, balance
Medulla oblongata: autonomic functions like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure
Pons: relay station for signals between cerebellum, medulla, and rest of brain
- sleep, respiration, swallowing, taste

Answer 181

A

Midbrain and medulla oblongata + pons form the Brainstem, physical support for the brain

contains reticular activating system (RAS) – modulates alertness and arousal

Answer 182

A

Forebrain

contains thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland

thalamus: relays sensory and motor signals
- regulates sleep and alertness
hypothalamus: bridge between NS and endocrine system
Pituitary gland: releases hormones

Answer 183

A

Forebrain

cerebrum: cerebral cortex and subcortical structures
- cerebral cortex: right and left hemispheres
- subcortical structures: LIMBIC SYSTEM
  - olfactory bulbs: detecting odors
  - hippocampus: consolidates short term memory into long term
  - basal ganglia: eye movement, voluntary movement, habitual learning

Answer 184

A

Emotion, motivation, memory

subcortical structures: LIMBIC SYSTEM + hypothalamus, amygdala

- olfactory bulbs: detecting odors

- hippocampus: consolidates short term memory into long term

- basal ganglia: eye movement, voluntary movement, habitual learning

amygdala: episodic memory, attention, emotion
Nucleus accumbens: reward, motivation, learning; implicated in addiction

Answer 185

A

Frontal lobe: voluntary movement, memory processing, planning, motivation, attention
* Broca’s area: language production
Parietal lobe: all sensory processing but vision
Occipital lobe: vision, back of brain
Temporal lobe: meaning, visual memories, language
* Wernickes area: language comprehension

Answer 186

A

Located in frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex

Language production

Answer 187

A

Located in temporal lobe of cerebral cortex

language comprehension

Answer 188

A

Tendency of left and right hemispheres to specialize

different neurons respond differently to neurotransmitters

Answer 189

A

Link between central and peripheral NS

both brain and spinal cord protected by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Also protected by meninges (tough membranes) and by bones (skull and vertebrae

Answer 190

A

Holes in middle for spinal cord;

cervical (C1-C7), thoracic (T1-T12), lumbar (L1-L5), sacrum (S1-S5)(fused together)

Ends with coccyx

D.orsal
A.fferent nerves
V.entral
E.fferent nerves

Answer 191

A

Areas of skin with nerves that correspond to different vertebrae

Answer 192

A

Observing injury and stimulation to certain areas with electrodes or chemicals

Electroencephalograms (EEG): using electrodes on brain, identify function not structure

Computed Tomography (CT): 2D x-rays to make 3D image

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): magnetic fields, no radiation, better at imaging soft structures

Positron Emission Tomography (PET): radiolabels glucose with fludeoxyglucose, emits positrons as it decays

more decay = more glucose metabolised = more neural activity
can diagnose tumors, strokes, dementia

fMRI: now preferred over PET, relies on differences in magnetic properties b/w oxygenated hemoglobin (arterial blood) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (venous blood)

visualize blood flow

Answer 193

A

DNA sequence that codes for a protein that produces a trait

Genes found at specific locations are called locus

Variations in same gene are alleles - one on each homologous chromosome

dominant or recessive
hemizygous = one copy present
homozygous = two

Wild type: most common variant (W⁺W⁺)

Mutant: mutated alleles

Answer 194

A

Tend to be recessive, can be covered

Gain of function usually dominant

Answer 195

A

Homozygous recesssive cross to determine genotype

Crossing offspring with parent genotype

Answer 196

A

Two dominant alleles expressed

ex. ABO blood types, type AB

Answer 197

A

Blended phenotype, heterozygote

Answer 198

A

Likelihood a genotype will manifest a phenotype

Answer 199

A

Severity of a phenotype

Answer 200

A

Autosomal: non sex chromosomes, recessive can skip generations

de novo: spontaneous mutation

Sex-linked: usually X-linked, recessive or dominant

Answer 201

A

Segregation: allele pairs segregate randomly from each other into gametes

Independent assortment: alleles for separate traits independently inherited; not always true due to linkage

linkage: genes close to each other on same chromosome are usually inherited together unless genetically recombined (crossing over at chismata)

Dominance: recessive alleles mask to some degree

Answer 202

A

Distance associated with a 1% change in recombination frequency

ex. 1 Cm = 1% chance of recombination
50 Cm = unlinked

Double crossover- genes so far apart 2 crossover events cause them to be on same chromosome

Answer 203

A

Variation
Reproduction
Differential reproduction due to selective pressure

Answer 204

A

Describes how favorable traits are favored over time

underlying mechanism

Fitness is relative to environment

Answer 205

A

Acting in a way that benefits others survivals

I’d save 2 brothers or 8 cousins

Answer 206

A

Natural selection applied to a group level

Answer 207

A

Traits passed on that promote survival of the group

altruism, empathy, sharing alleles

Answer 208

A

Mathematical relationship between alelles and phenotype frequencies

Used to model stable gene pools

gene pool: evolutionary success indicated by popular alleles in gene pool
- stable:
  - no mutation
  - random mating
  - large population size
  - no natural selection

A = p

a = q

allele frequency: p + q = 100%

phenotype frequency: p² + 2pq + q² = 1

Answer 209

A

4.6 billion years

3-4 billion years

200,000 years

Answer 210

A

stabilizing: favors intermediate phenotypes

Directional: favors one extreme

Disruptive: both extremes favored

Answer 211

A

Natural selection and chance

Genetic drift: change in gene pool due to random chance, usually in smaller populations

Bottleneck effect: natural disaster artifically increases/decreases allele frequency
Founder effect: reduction in genetic diversity due to small group founding a new colony

Random errors in the genome accumulate at a fixed rate; can be used to tell how long ago there was a shared ancestor

Gene flow: movement of alleles due to migration between populations

Answer 212

A

Gene flow

Random Chance

Migration

Mutation

Selective pressure

Answer 213

A

Group of organisms that can form fertile offspring and reproductively isolated from other groups

contested, doesn’t apply to asexual organisms, like bacteria or hybridization

Answer 214

A

Prezygotic: prevent zygote from forming

Postzygotic: prevent formed zygote from being visibile or fertile

hybrids: two different species make viable offspring thats usually sterile

Answer 215

A

Inbreeding: Breeding between closely genetically related individuals

deleterious recessive mutations

Outbreeding: breeding with and passing alleles between unrelated members of same species

genetic diversity

Answer 216

A

Divergent: Common ancestor splits into two species due to different traits

Convergent: two species become more phenotypically similar, not as common

Answer 217

A

Parallel Evolution: 2 closely related species share a common ancestor and evolve similar traits independently

Coevolution: evolution of two species in response to eachother, symbiotic relationships

Answer 218

A

Relationship between two organisms that benefits, harms, or has no effect for one or both parties

Mutualism: both organisms benefit
Commensalism: one organism benefits, no effect on other
Parasitism: parasite benefits from harming its host

Answer 219

A

X_center = m₁x₁ + m₂x₂… / (m₁ + m₂)

x = distance to masses from reference point

Answer 220

A

Static: opposes movement of an object not moving

magnitude depends on force applied to object

Kinetic: opposes object in motion

constant magnitude

Different materials have different coefficients

F_max= u_s N

Force required to move object depends on coeff of static friction and normal force on object

F_kinetic= u_k N

Answer 221

A

Reference work

Answer 222

A

F_grav= Gm₁m₂ / r²

G = gravitational constant
- 6.67 x10^-11 m³ /kg s²

F_{centripetal =}mv²/r

if caused by gravity, then g = v²/r

Answer 223

A

JOINTS, DIPOLES (rotate to align in electric field)

Force applied to rotate an object around a fixed axis

rotational force applied to a lever arm at a distance from the fulcrum

T= Fdsinθ

Strongest torque = force at 90 degrees, greatest distance from fulcrum

sin90 = 1

Clockwise = neg T

CCW = positive

Answer 224

A

2 layers = bilayer membrane, polar exterior and nonpolar interior

small nonpolar molecules can diffuse easily, large polars can’t

Sterols

Glycolipids

Answer 225

A

Lipids

Cholesterol, modulates fluidity of plasma membranes

characteristic 4 ring structure

Steroid hormones

Answer 226

A

Carbohydrate modifies the lipid instead of a phosphate group

Peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide

cell signaling and cell adhesion
amphipathic structure
either glycerol or sphingosine backbone

Glyceroglycolipid

Sphingolipid: sphingomyelin clusters with cholesterol to form “lipid rafts”

modulate fluidity and clusters for signaling

Answer 227

A

Integral: embedded in plasma membrane

transmembrane proteins: completely cross cell membrane
protein pumps, ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors

Lipid-anchored: bound to 1+ lipid molecules which anchor protein to membrane

G-protein: intracellular, coordinate cascade initiated by G protein coupled receptors

Peripheral- found in cytoplasm, temporarily attached to integral proteins

enzymes and hormones, only briefly interact with membrane

Glycoproteins: glycosylated proteins (addition of carbohydrate)

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
antigens of ABO blood type system
cell recognition and communication processes

Answer 228

A

Lipid bilayers enclosing a spherical space

lab derived, deliver material to target cells
test cell membrane permeability
can also embed proteins

Answer 229

A

Structurally simpler liposome, only a single layer lipid membrane

can reduced surface tension of a solution
- surfactants
don’t contain membrane proteins

Answer 230

A

Cell membrane is constantly in motion; motion is constrained

Forms coherent hole but pieces are visible

Phospholipids can move horizontally but not vertically

need enzymes to catalyze movement
- Flippase: moves phospholipids from external side to internal side
- Floppase: opposite
- Scramblaser: bidirectional

Degree to which phospholipids can move laterally is membrane fluidity

makes space for diffusion and imbedded proteins
too much/too little fluidity would be an issue

Answer 231

A

Cholesterol: regulates extremes

at cold temperatures, cholesterols ring structure gives fatty acid tails a rigid shape; keeps space between them
inhibits fluidity in heat

Answer 232

A

Phosphate head, saturated and unsaturated fatty acid tails

saturated: no C=C double bonds; stackable, interact with each other easily, and higher melting pt
- interactions between tails which are closer together
unsaturated: at least one C=C; lower melting points and more fluidity

Answer 233

A

Down concentration gradient, high to low

small molecules:
- gases (O₂, CO₂)
  - essential for respiration
- small uncharged polar molecules
  - H₂O, ethanol, urea

Answer 234

A

Water diffuses to side with highest solute concentration

semi-permeable membrane

Isotonic: equal conc of solutes

Hypotonic: more solute inside than outside, cell can burst or swell

increases pressure, headaches and drowsiness
IV hydration administers isotonic saline

Hypertonic: more solute outside cell, cell shrinks

can be used to preserve food, kills bacteria (plasmolysis)

Answer 235

A

Water exerts pressure on membrane and blocks any more from passive

Minimum pressure to prevent further osmosis

Van’t Hoff’s Law: π = MRT

M = molarity (n/L) (moles / Liters solute)
R = ideal gas constant
T = temp in Kelvin

Answer 236

A

Moles solute / kg solvent

Answer 237

A

Molarity of all solute particles (1 mol NaCl would be 2 osm/L)

Answer 238

A

π = iMRT

i = # of particles per molecule

ex. NaCl i=2

Answer 239

A

Molecules too big or polary undergo facilitated diffusion

Transmembrane channels serve as transporter for molecules
- specific for solutes
- respond to stimuli to open
- flow is down concentration gradient, no ATP

Against osmotic gradient, thermodynamically favored (increases entropy)

Channels can bottleneck and rates of diffusion level off = saturation kinetics

Answer 240

A

Transporter specific for water

transmembrane proteins that selectively conduct water molecules
- highly polar
- rate of osmosis is limited

Answer 241

A

Transport ions

extremely specific
selective for when they open up
- response to signals
  - voltage: changes in electric membrane potential

Voltage gated ion channel: neuronal signaling and propagation of action potentials

Ligand-gated transporters: open in response to signal molecules

neurotransmitters

Channels can respond to light, pressure, shearing (breaking off), stretching

Answer 242

A

Requires ATP to move solute AGAINST a concentration/electrochemical gradient

Primary and secondary active transport

Answer 243

A

Transmembrane proteins catalyze ATP hydrolysis –> releases energy –> moves solutes across membrane

transmembrane ATPases catalyze hydrolysis of ATP
can also be powered by redox reactions or energy from photons

redox example: Enzymes of electron transport train in mitochondria use energy released from redox rxns to translocate proteins across inner mito membrane against conc gradient

ex. Sodium Potassium pump
* Na⁺K⁺ ATPase

Answer 244

A

Body maintains difference in concentrations of Na and K ions inside and outside of cell

Sodium has higher conc out of cell “blood is salty”
Potassium has higher conc inside cell

3 sodium in for 2 K+ out for each ATP molecule

Maintains a net charge imbalance of -1 inside cell
- ** contributes to membrane potential

Answer 245

A

Active and passive transport

Active transport generates conc gradient which powers passive transport of something else
- spontaneous process powers a nonspontaneous one
- direction can be opposite or same
  - symporter and antiporter

ex. Sodium-Glucose cotransporter: symporter moves sodium and glucose into cell via passive transport using NaK pump conc gradient

Answer 246

A

cyt = cell

cytosis= cell absorption/ release

endo = inside

exo= outside

phago = eat

pino= drink

Answer 247

A

Some substances too large to be transported by transmembrane proteins; endo/exocytosis used for uptake and release of growth factors, antibodies, and other proteins, low density lipoprotein (contains cholesterol)

Endocytosis: cells absorb molecules by engulfing them

area of plasma membrane surrounds a material forming a vesicle
- vesicle buds off from internal face of membrane
  - pinocytosis: cell engulfs liquid
  - phagocytosis: cell engulfs a solid
    - typically by phagocytes of immune system to ingest foreign particles/pathogens
receptor-mediated endocytosis: cell is targeting specific molecules

Answer 248

A

Membrane of intracellular vesicle fuses with plasma membrane

lipids or proteins bound for plasma membrane or secreted proteins
in some cases, release is controlled by calcium ion signaling

ex. influx of Ca²⁺ ions into neurons leads to release of neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft

neurons release neurotransmitters via exocytosis

Answer 249

A

Endosomes are membrane bound organelles that function as sorting compartments

identify engulfed substances that should be reused in plasma membrane like receptor components vs those the cell needs internally or should be degraded

early endosomes: are located close to plasma membrane, do most of sorting

late endosomes: main role is delivering matrial to lysosomes: recycler of cell; highly acidic with special enzymes

For phagocytosis, phagosomes deliver pathogens to lysosomes

Answer 250

A

6.022 x 10²³

Number of units/atoms in one mole of a substance

Answer 251

A

Multiply front number, add exponents

Divide front number, subtract exponents

Manipulate decimals so that terms are to the same exponent and then add

Answer 252

A

cosθ= adjacent over hypotenuse

sinθ = opposite over hypotenuse

tanθ = opposite over adjacent

Answer 253

A

sin90 = 1

cos 90= 0

cos 0= 1

sin0 = 0

Answer 254

A

Unicellular, many are extremophiles

thrive in extreme tmp, pH, or salt conditions

Use whatever energy source they can get their flagella on

organic compounds
ammonia
hydrogen gas
metal ions
photosynthesis

Answer 255

A

Much more common than archaea; most in humans are commensal

Categorized by shape:

coccus: sphere shaped
bacillus: rod shaped
spirillum: spiral shapped

Answer 256

A

Bacteria that are harmful to the body

harm host through different mechanisms
- reproduce intracellularly or outside of host
- secrete damaging toxins
Normally treated with antibiotics
- antibiotic resistance:
  - pump out drugs with efflux pumps
  - inactivating antimicrobial enzymes

ex. E coli

Staphylococcus aureus - multidrug resistance responsible for MRSA

Answer 257

A

obligate aerobes: oxygen required for metabolism

anaerobes: oxygen not required

obligate anaerobes: can’t survive in presence of oxygen
aerotolerant: tolerate O₂
facultative: aerobic metabolism when available

Answer 258

A

lack of membrane bound nucleus and organelles

bacterial DNA resides in nucleoid region of cytoplasm
- Genetic material is single circular chromosome of dsDNA
*transcription and translation occur simultaneously

Plasmids

Cell wall: provides structural support and extra layer of defense

rich in rigid polysaccharide called peptidoglycan
- can take up gram stain

Answer 259

A

Many bacteria cantain smaller circular DNA fragments

non essential genes; an confer antibiotic resistance or code for virulence factors: enhance ability to spread/harm host

Answer 260

A

Technique used to separate bacteria into two categories based on structure of cell walls

Gram positive: thick, peptidoglycan rich cell wall traps stain

Gram negative: thin layer of peptidoglycan followed by LPS

ex. E coli

Antibiotics like penicillin target peptidoglycan wall and have trouble penetrating gram-negative outer membrane, makes them more difficult to treat than gram-positive

LPS is antigenic and capable of inducing a deadly innate immune response in humans

Answer 261

A

Aerobic respiration w/o mitochondria

Electron transport chain is located on cell membrane
- endosymbiotic theory: mitochondria originated when cyanobacterium was englufed by Eukaryotic cell

Answer 262

A

Prokaryotic: 30S and 50S -> 70S

Eukaryotic: 40S and 60S -> 80S

Svedberg units: describe sedimentation rate

Difference between ribosomes allow antibiotics to target bacterial ribosomes

Answer 263

A

Eukaryotic: composed of microtubules and whips back and forth to propel cell

Prokaryotic flagella: rotate to propel cell forward

comprised of filament, basal body (responsible for rotation), and hook connects the two

Answer 264

A

Binary Fission:

Circular chromosome replicated
Cell growth
New cell wall grows and segregates
Two chromosomes pulled towards either half of cell
Cell splits

as quickly as 20 min, growth constrained by nutrient resources

Answer 265

A

Lag phase- bacteria adapt to new environment
Exponential
Stationary- growth limited by nutrients
Death phase

Answer 266

A

Sensitive to light and heat

Must be transmitted via bodily fluid

ex. HIV

Answer 267

A

ssDNA, dsDNA, ssRNA, ds RNA

ssRNA:

positive sense if they contain mRNA that can be translated to protein
negative sense if RNA is complementary to mRNA and must be copied into mRNA by viral enzyme RNA replicase prior to translation

Answer 268

A

Contain reverse transcriptase to transcribe RNA to DNA and integrate into host

used in PCR for amplification
ex. HIV, responsible for AIDS, hard to treat because genome integrated with hosts
treated successfully w/ antiretroviral drugs that target reverse transcriptase

Answer 269

A

Mobile elements that make up 40% of human genome

Answer 270

A

DNA: translocates to nucleus, trascribed by hosts RNA polymerase

RNA: immediately translated to protein in cytoplasm or reverse transcribed to DNA

Answer 271

A

Release of virions from host cell, leaves host cell intact (not lytic)

Answer 272

A

Achieving genetic variability despite asexual reproduction

Conjugation (fertility factor F⁺)(sex pilus)(major cause of antibiotic resistance)

Transformation

Transduction (bacteriophages)

Answer 273

A

Infect bacteria, more complex structure

Lytic- release lyses cell

Lysogenic (integration into host genome)

creates prophage/provirus lies dormant in host until triggered by environmental signal
- then switches to lytic cycle

Answer 274

A

Some target reverse transcriptase

Target attachment to host cell

Block assembly of new virions

Answer 275

A

Small simple RNA particles that infect plants

Lacks capsid/envelope

Binds complementary RNA sequence in plants to silence gene expression

Answer 276

A

Misfoled proteins that cause other proteins to misfold and aggregate together, harming cell function

Responsible for Creutzfeld-Jakob disease
- fatal neurodegenerative disease transmitted by eating beef from cattle w/ mad cow disease
Fatal familial insomnia and kuru

Answer 277

A

Nonharmful fungi

Answer 278

A

yeast infections, ringworm

Answer 279

A

Protozoa: single celled parasites (eukaryotes)

carried by mosquitoes -> malaria

Helminths: multicellular worms

Ectoparasites: multicellular, live outside host

fleas, lice

Immune system mediates infections by eusinophils and IgE antibodies

parasites tricky to treat because eukaryotic, same machinary

Answer 280

A

Cleave DNA at specific sequences, DNAses

Sequences that restriction enzymes look for have defining features: 4-8 bp long, symmetric/palindromic inverted repeats

Prokaryotic DNAses can act as defense against viruses
Some DNAses are nonspecific and cleave DNA wherever they can

Answer 281

A

Blunt ends: small restriction enzymes

Sticky ends: EcoR1 restriction enzyme

Sticky ends more desirable because they can be ligated back with DNA ligase

Answer 282

A

Insert target sequence into “vector” (small DNA molecule that can transfer DNA into target cells by hijacking replication machinary and integrating itself)

Vectors:

plasmids: derived from prokaryotes circular DNA that replicate independently
- spliced, recombined, and introduced into bacteria
- Gene sequence “insert” is synthesized with 2 restriction sites matching plasmid vector
- reporter gene: in plasmid elicits visible phenotype change
bacteriophage: incorporate larger sequences

Same techniques used for RNA if reverse transcriptase used

Answer 283

A

Synthesize gene seq insert with restriction sites
Digest insert and vector
Ligation of insert and vector
Treatment of bacteria w/ plasmid
Plasmid replication
Select for bacteria w/ plasmid

Answer 284

A

Mass protein production: insulin, vaccine components, inteferons, tumor necrosis factor
Alterations to genetic code

Answer 285

A

Genomes have been modified

Organisms with 1+ genes deleted, can see which genes are necessary

ex. cystic fibrosis caused by single mutation that hinders CFTR gene

GMO: genetically modificed in agriculture

Answer 286

A

Independent: what researcher manipulates (x)

Dependent: what changes in response to x (y)

dependent cant occur before independent

Answer 287

A

Confounding: affects both indep and dep variables; potentially obscures relationship b/w them

ex. cigarette smoking obscures relationship between coffee and cardiovascular disease
- coffee drinkers smoke more cigs
- cigs –> CVD

Mediating variable: explains counterintuitive relationships b/w indep and dep variables

ex. median household income –> cancer mortality rate
- mediated by availability of healthcare

Moderating variable: modulates intensity of relationship

ex. workplace stress –> anxiety/depression
- moderated by exercise

Answer 288

A

process of defining variables in measurable, practical ways

Answer 289

A

Experimental: researchers manipulate the world in some way

Observational: researchers analyze pre-exisiting patterns of variation to determine relationships

Quantitative: numerical measurements of variables

Qualitative: verbal/open ended measurements of variables

Mixed Method

Answer 290

A

Negative controls: don’t receive the treatment/intervention of interest

placebo
crucial to demonstrate intervention effect

Positive controls: receive a treatment known to induce outcome of interest

confirm adequacy and competency of procedure

Answer 291

A

Controls and experimental groups treating the same

randomization: samples randomly allocated to control or treatment groups

blindness: researchers don’t know which sample is control/experimental when doing maintenence

double blind: neither participants nor researchers know who is in control group

randomized control trial: participants randomized to treatment or control

Answer 292

A

cross sectional study: measuring various stats among a set of people, looking for correlations

large samples
study types
- opinion poll
- surveys
- correlational studies

limitations:

provide a limited snapshot of a certain population at a certain time, can’t provide info on causality (correlation doesn’t mean causation)
no info about how things change over time

Answer 293

A

Multiple measurements over time

risk factors: independent variables associated with higher risk of negative outcome

protective factors: independent variables associated with lower risk of negative outcome

cohort studies: group of subjects assembled based on an organizing principle and followed up over time

prospective analysis: data gathered moving forward

restrospective studies: data from past

Answer 294

A

Compare cases to controls

cases: individuals with an outcome of interest

identifying any differences between the two groups might shed light
used in epidemiology to investigate cause of disease

case study: report on a single case

case series: multiple cases reported

Answer 295

A

Strong: meta analyses: data from multiple studies combined, reanalyzed

systemic reviews: assess outcomes of various studies

randomized controlled trials: experimental

cohort studies

case control

Weakest: case studies/series

Answer 296

A

Research has social/clincal value
Research has scientific validity
Principle of fair subject selection
* participants chosen based on relevance for study’s goals
Principle of favorable risk-benefit ratio
Principle of independent review
Principle of informed consent
Respect for potential and enrolled participants

Answer 297

A

used to identify genetic predictors of various health outcomes

Answer 298

A

Statistical power is low due to all the potential relationships

Effect size not large enough to motivate public health efforts

Answer 299

A

Ultimate goal of research

basic factors for causality:
- association (correlation) between variables
- Establish that variation in the indep variable precedes variation in dep
- Plausible mechanism through which possible cause could exert effect
- Rule out possible mediating outcomes

Answer 300

A

Family, education, healthcare, economy, gov’t and religion

Answer 301

A

No right or wrong theory, theories not mutually exclusive

Micro is small scale, macro is large scale interactions

Answer 302

A

Understanding structures and institutions based on their functions

manifest functions: intended functions for institution

latent functions: unintended functions that are positive

latent dysfunctions: reinforces patterns of social inequality

Could be a matter of opinion -> AUTHORS TONE

Answer 303

A

Thought to have originated with Karl Marx but not associated with Marxism/Socialism

Competition for resources between structures or groups

leads to conflicts and power differentials
doesn’t necessary require conflict

ex. resources –> college –> economic opportunity

Answer 304

A

How people interact with symbols

requires an interaction
symbols: something we assign meaning to
- has a shared sense of meaning in society

Answer 305

A

Meaning of social structures/ concepts emerges from how we think and communicate about them

ex. gender roles, love, patriotism

*Tends to be macrosociological when compared to symbolic interactionism

Focuses on constructing the symbols

Answer 306

A

Choose actions to maximize the likelihood of accomplishing certain goals

ex. wanting intoxication, taking drugs

How people make choices

Answer 307

A

View social interactions as interchanges with costs and rewards

ex. friendships: invest time and energy and receive benefits like support

** actual interactions

Answer 308

A

Goal of understanding and remedying gender injustices

Through focus on lived experiences and objective data

Answer 309

A

hidden curriculum: things you learn in educational setting that aren’t part of official curriculum

values, norms, ways of interacting
positive or negative

segregation: putting different things in different places

legal segregation of schools
still present in education systems due to uneven distribution of students based on race, ethnicity, poverty

stratification: arranging things in layers

levels of socioeconomic status
people with higher status have more options for access to education system

teacher expectations: may be based on stereotypes and may impact student performance

Answer 310

A

Family defines early lives

kinship of descent: shared ancestry

kinship of affinity: based off marriage and adoption

primary kin: related through very close bond: parent child, marriage, siblinghood

secondary kin: primary kin of your primary kin

tertiary kin: primary kin of your secondary or secondary of primary

Answer 311

A

Vary across cultures. change over time

ex. divorce rates, same sex partners

Violence and abuse can occur: physical, psychological, sexual, neglect

Answer 312

A

Institution with strongest impact

function to replicate themselves over time and structure peoples lives

Provide rituals, community, ethical frameworks, important life events

religiosity: how religious a person considers themselves to be

Generally focus on christianity as practiced in Europe

Answer 313

A

Religios organizations exists on a spectrum

churches (stable organized, bureaucratic)

then

denominations (diff interpretations, but same religious context)

then

sects (smaller dissident split off

cults: small tightly controlled and isolated

Answer 314

A

Cumulative impact of technological advance from last century

secularization: decreased religiosity
fundamentalism: literal, uncomprimising approach to religion

Answer 315

A

Power: literal ability to get things done and compel certain behaviors

Authority: legitimacy and right of gov’t to structure citizens lives

Answer 316

A

Rulership/sovereignty is passed down in defined succession

constitutional monarchy - UK
absolute monarchy

Answer 317

A

Citizens have little to no input into gov’t

soft authoritarianism: have elections, limited choice of candidates
- gov’t minimizes its intrusion into citizens lives, but represses outward forms of dissent

Answer 318

A

Gov’t regulates every aspect of life, including citizens communication

Answer 319

A

gov’t controlled by voting citizens

direct: citizens vote for laws themselves
indirect (democratic republic): citizens vote for representatives who then make laws

Answer 320

A

Private ownership of property and companies

Answer 321

A

Collective ownership and distribution

relies on state regulation
recognizes private property

Answer 322

A

More extreme version of socialism, no sectors of economy under private ownership

Answer 323

A

Communism tends to be implemented by authoritarian/totalitarian gov’ts

Western European countries have implemented democratic socialism, allows private enterprise and market activity

Answer 324

A

Usually democratic nations

Some authoritarian/totalitarian (especially fascists) states

Answer 325

A

form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy that rose to prominence in early 20th-century Europe

Answer 326

A

Leads to specialization

Not all skills equally useful or demanded
High demand skills
- highly specialized, higher wages
Low demand skills

Answer 327

A

Treating medical conditions as social and cultural constructs

addiction: used to be thought as a personal problem, now a medical condition
modern pregnancy care
- cold, clinical, and alienating
- leads to much lower death rates
erectile dysfunction: used to be seen as unfortunate part of aging, now a medical condition

Answer 328

A

A role that carries the rights and responsibilites of sick individuals in society

Reflects social consensus that being sick is not your fault
Sick people exempt from normal responsibilites

Sick people should typically follow the instructions of their doctors to get better

exceptions: sometimes societies blame people for their illnesses especially those from lifestyle factors
- diabetes, smokers, obesity

Sick role works better. for acute illnesses than chronic conditions

Sick role not consistent across cultures

Answer 329

A

Hospitals: treat spectrum of conditions, inpatients

Doctor’s offices: non-hospitalized patients, outpatients

Acute care clinics

Answer 330

A

Paternalism: doctor wants to do whats best for patient without informing them

Current paradigm of medical ethics

Beneficence: acting for patients benefit
Nonmaleficence: do no harm
Respect for pt’s autonomy: pt’s make decision even if contradcit medical advice
Justice: doctors provide care equally and fairly

Answer 331

A

Aim to analyze illness as a social construct

how people experience becoming ill
the decision of whether to seek care
the experience of recovery

ex. some people see illness as punishment, others as a challenge

Answer 332

A

Study of who gets illnesses and distribution patterns (by age, sex, location, behaviors)

first applied to infectious diseases
- now all diseases

Answer 333

A

Influence on health outcomes

Low SES populations have life expectancy up to 10 years shorter

Answer 334

A

How we situate in groups

status: any social category to identify people - very broad

Answer 335

A

achieved status: status one works to attain, subjective

ascribed status: status assigned involuntarily, not based on actions

master status: status so dominant in someones life it crowds out other statuses

Answer 336

A

Role strain: strain brought on by multiple responsibilities from one role

Role conflict: difficulty balancing multiple different roles

Role exit: process of disengaging from a role

Role engulfment: expansion of a role to dominate ones life

closely related to what one does with energy and time

Answer 337

A

Primary groups: long lasting with deep bonds, not always positive

Secondary groups: short lasting and more superficial

Peer groups: people often similar in age, status, background, interests, usually self selected

Family groups: people defined by genetic relationships and/or marriage/adoption

In groups: categories someone identifies as a member of

Out groups: categories someone doesn’t identify as a member of

stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination

Reference groups: groups we compare ourselves to (evaluate self w/ reference to that group)

Answer 338

A

Triads (3 people)

Answer 339

A

Relationships b/w people/groups

Answer 340

A

Subset of groups

Specific structure
Defined rules for entering/exiting
Organization will exist once members are gone

Coercive organizations: people don’t choose to be apart of

Normative organizations: people join out of some shared ideal/ethical goal

Utilitarian organization: people join to make money

Answer 341

A

Rational, well organized, impersonal and typically large administrative systems

ex. gov’t, hospital, schools, courts

Studied by Max Weber in late 19th century

Ideal:

Heirarchical
Well defined roles, chain of command
Organized by specialization
Run impersonally
Recruitment is technical, merit based
Predictable career paths
Politically neutral

Answer 342

A

Anarchist collective: group w/o bosses with group-based, consensus oriented decision making

Democratic governance: flat organizational structures that minimize heirarchies

Iron law of oligarchy: group starts with democratic decision making will ended up dominated by small group

Answer 343

A

Organizational approach that focuses on efficiency, calculability, uniformity, technological control

Answer 344

A

How we interact with each other; learned in childhood via socialization

subconcious level: words, tone, facial expression, body language, text
Physical stimuli and body language that communicate emotions

Difficulty observung emotional signals is sign of autism spectrum disorder

Signaling varies in cultures and b/w different groups

Answer 345

A

Male faces more likely to be interpreted as anger, females as sadness

Womaen may be more sensitive to emotional signals

Answer 346

A

Self disclosure: what you disclose to others about yourself

Managing appearances: groom, dress, and act

Ingratiation: attempt to influence another person by becoming more likeable

Aligning actions: presenting your actions in a light that makes them more appealing in a certain setting

Altercasting: project an identity onto someone and then create an expectation that they should act the way you want

ex. you’re premed so you should …

Answer 347

A

How we present ourselves in front of audience vs. more authentic self, no longer in front of audience

Answer 348

A

Sexual and friendly attraction

physical attractiveness: a social construct, also objectively measurable correlates like facial symmetry
- attractive traits indicate suitability as a mate

Proximity: more likley to be attracted to people we see daily, more exposure effect

Similarity: more likely to be attracted to similar people

Answer 349

A

Defending against threats and obtaining greater access to resources

used to reinforce and maintain social heirarchies
testosterone levels in both sexes

Impulsive behaviors regulated and restrained by prefrontal cortex

stem from emotional arousal mediated by limbic system

Also shaped by ones personal experiences

Molded by society norms and expectations

Answer 350

A

Bonds that form b/w children and their caregivers

consistent, responsive caregiver leads to secure attachment

ambivalent attachment: inconsistent caregiver, intense distress when they leave

avoidant attachment: neglectful relationship, child doesn’t care

disoriented attachment: abusive caregiver, hesistant contradictory and confused behavior

Answer 351

A

Helping others at some cost to yourself

puzzling behavior, rational choice theory
Structured gift giving

Answer 352

A

Emotional, informational, tangible/material support, companionship support

Positive health outcomes

Answer 353

A

Foraging: how animals search for food; behaviors often learned, economic models can help make sense

Mating: animals have wide range of ways in engaging in courtship, copulating, and raising offspring

mate choice: can be random, some respond to phenotypic signals (for genetic fitness or seemingly random (Fisherian selection))

Game theory: math that deals with decision making in gamelike scenarios

ex. prisoners dillema: whoever cooperates gets off, if both do they go to jail, if both don’t nothing happens

Altruism: evolution that focuses on the gene, not the individual

share genotypes with relatives
inclusive fitness: natural selection operates at the group level

Answer 354

A

People perform tasks better in group setting when psychological arousal is higher

when situation gets too stressful, performance breaks down

Answer 355

A

People work less hard in a group setting

others pick up slack
often not deliberate conscious choice

Answer 356

A

People tend not to offer help to someone if others present

diffusion of responsibility in a crowd
model our behavior based on those around us
social etiquette

case study: Kitty Genovese murder 1964

Answer 357

A

Less of sense of self awareness ina large group due to psychological arousal

lower perceived responsibility - dance clubs, raves
contributing factors
- anonymity
- diffused responsibility

Answer 358

A

Group polarization: group of people will arrive at final opinions that are more extreme than the initial positions of the individual members

initial opinions get amplified
“echo chambers” effects social media, people interact with similar people
- politics
contributing factors:
- informational influence : people in a group are more likely to press points in line with dominant viewpoint
- normative influence: our desire to be socially accepted, affirmed or admired within a group
**Doesn’t have to be irrational, doesn’t require decision-making

Groupthink: irrational decisions made in groups due to pressures towards harmony and individual conformity

psychologist Irving Janis proposed groupthink to explain Nazi invasion
characteristics:
- illusion of invulnerability: no serious harm will come to group
- illusion of morality: unbending belief in the moral righteousness of the groups cause
- illusion of unanimity: group assumes the majority of opinions in the group are unanimous
- self censorship: members who disagree dont share opinions
- pressure of dissenters: pressre not to contradict the majority
- collective rationalization: group finds reasons to ignore warnings and avoid reconsidering actions
- excessive stereotyping: negative views of outside opinions
- mind guards: certain members filer info that could destabilize consensus
always involve irrational decisions made by group

Answer 359

A

Someones behavior, beliefs, or thinking changes to line up with perspectives of others

someone simply behaving the same way as a a group is not necessarily conformity
- convergence
Internalization or conversion: genuine change in someone’s beliefs

Answer 360

A

Compliance: person conforms but internally dissents

not the same as compliance to requests
identification: persons belief change only only in presence of group
- Asch experiment: each subject shown a card with a line and another w/ 3 lines
  - which line is same length as first card
  - subjects repeat incorrect answers

Compliance: responses to requests from someone with no power to enforce the request

marketing and sales pitches are request related compliance
tactics:
- foot in the door: making a small request followed by a large one
- door in the face: making a large request you know will be rejevted followed by a small more reasonable one
- lowball: offer low price and raise it at last minute

Answer 361

A

Change in behavior in response to a direct request from someone with power to enforce it

Answer 362

A

Students either guards or prisoners

prisoners treated harshly by guards
prisoners showed real suffering and guards showed sadistic tendencies
- showed how people readily conform to social roles

Answer 363

A

Rules, spoken or unspoken, that regulate behavior, beliefs, attitudes, and values of members of society

Formal: encoded somewhere, penalties for violation
Informal: not written, expectations with no penalties
- Folkways: insignificant informal norms that involve small details
- Mores: informal norms, incur severe disapproval when violated
Taboos: even more restrictive norms that generate extreme disapproval
- ex. incest
- blur line between formal and informal

Answer 364

A

The way norms are taught, enforced, and perpetuated

More general phenomenon
sanctions: punishment/negative consequences for violating a social norm or reqards for following one
peer pressure: desire for approval or fear of disapproval

Answer 365

A

When someone doesn’t conform to the norms

Answer 366

A

lack of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group.

Answer 367

A

Differential Association Theory: views deviance as behavior that is learned socially

draws from symbolic interactionism

Labeling Approach: behavior affected by being labeled a deviant

Primary deviance: deviant acts committed before being labeled

Secondary Deviance: deviant acts committed after being labeled

Strain Theory: social and economic pressures towards deviance

Answer 368

A

How we learn informal and formal norms by interacting with other people/institutions

agents:
- family
- educational system
- mass media
- peers
- workplace

Answer 369

A

New behavior becomes extremely popular, then fades

Answer 370

A

Irrational fear of a perceived threat, verging on the point of a collective delusion

Answer 371

A

Spontaneous episodes of civil disorder

classic example of deindividuation

Answer 372

A

Actual/theoretical x 100

Actual -Theoretical /Theoretical x 100

Answer 373

A

Adenosine Triphosphate - cellular energy

Protein synthesis, glucose metabolism, intracellular transport
nucletotide adenine and ribose sugar
- form nucleoside adenosine
3 phosphate groups
- alpha, beta, gamma
  - gamma is unstable, ATP hydrolysis

Answer 374

A

ATP loses phosphate group and is hydrolyzed to ADP

Addition of a water molecule
Releases large amount of energy, highly favorable and spontaneous

ADP phosphorylation unfavorable, nonspontaneous

Answer 375

A

Substrate level phosphorylation

Oxidative phosphorylation

Answer 376

A

Occurs during glycolysis and TCA, involves transfer of phosphate group from a glycolytic intermediate to ADP

Enzyme catalyzed and coupled with favorable spontaneous reaction to help drive forward the nonspontaneous phosphorylation
ex.
- ***final step of glycolysis, ADP phosphorylation paired with exergonic cleavage of phosphoenol pyruvate by pyruvate kinase yields pyruvate and ATP
  - ***also occurs in citric acid cycle, except forms guanisine triphosphate GTP

Answer 377

A

Vast majority of ATP in eukaryotes

Redox reactions involving NADH and FADH₂ electron carriers that feed electrons taken from glycolytic substrates and citric acid intermediates into ETC
As electrons passed through transport chain, protons pumped from mito matrix into intermembrane space
- electrochemical proton gradient
Protons return to matrix by diffusing through ATP synthase, forms ATP

**Can only occur in presence of oxygen, terminal electron accptor of transport chain

Substrate level phosphorylation doesn’t req oxygen

Answer 378

A

Produced in citric acid cycle

Powers biological reactions involved in signaling cascades and protein synthesis

Answer 379

A

Thioester bond of Acetyl CoA

Bonds in NADH and FADH₂

Answer 380

A

Redox reactions

Answer 381

A

transfer of electrons (OIL RIG)

Reduction: gain of electrons, more bonds to hydrogen

Oxidation: loss of electrons, fewer bonds to hydrogen, more to oxygen

When an atom (usually carbon) gains a bond to oxygen, oxidation has occured

Alkynes most oxidated, alkanes most reduced

Answer 382

A

When NAD+ is converted to NADH, it gains two things: First, a charged hydrogen molecule (H+) and next, two electrons. As electrons are negatively charged, the combination of the positively charged NAD+ and H+, coupled with two electrons, effectively cancel each other out and neutralize the resulting NADH molecule. This is why NADH does not have a “+” sign next to it.

Answer 383

A

NADH and FADH₂

Reduced versions
- Transfer electrons to protein complexes of ETC
When reduced, coupled with an oxidation of a different molecule

FADH is semi reduced form

Electron carriers are formed in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and beta-oxidation

Answer 384

A

Electron carriers are formed in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and beta-oxidation

Then they’re oxidized by protein complexes in inner mitochondrial membrane
Pass their electrons to protein complexes which act as pumps, use energy gained from electron transfers to drive hydrogen ions (protons) against their conc gradient

Proton gradient powers oxidative phosphorylation via ATP synthase

Final electron accpetor in ETC is a diatomic oxygen which is reduced to water

Answer 385

A

Some atoms/molecules want to gain electrons (be reduced) and some want to be oxidized

E°: how bad an atom/molecule wants to be reduced

** the more positive the reduction potential, the more a substance likes to be reduced

tells us electric potential difference that results from the substance being reduced
electric potential difference: not the same thing as energy; how energetically favorable reduction is

Answer 386

A

When each protein complex in sequence is reduced, it oxidizes the complex that comes before it

each successive complex has more positive reduction potential, energy is released
- wants to be reduced miore
  - energy used to pump protons

Answer 387

A

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins (to a lesser extent)

Answer 388

A

Can be easily stored as glycogen and its catabolism liberates lots of ATP via aerobic respiration

under anaerobic conditions, glyolysis produces way less ATP

Answer 389

A

Hydrophilic -> readily diffuse in bloodstream

too large and polar to diffuse across plasma membrane
special transmembrane transporters needed
- different types for diff purposes

Answer 390

A

Nearly all tissues, especially fetal, erthyroctyes, and cancer cells

Baseline cellular uptake, expression increases when glucose is low

Answer 391

A

Liver, kidney, and pancreatic cells

Bidirectional transport for glycolysis, glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis uptake and export

Answer 392

A

Neurons, placenta

High glucose affinity, transports glucose into cell when when extracellular conc is low

Answer 393

A

Skeletal and cardiac muscle, adipose tissue

Storage as glycogen or triglycerides, upregulated by glucose and insulin

Insulin sensitive

Type 2 diabetes- GLUT4 becomes insensitive to insulin, stops being expressed at normal insulin levels

difficult to correct blood sugar spikes

Answer 394

A

Planar geometry

Restricted rotation of peptide bonds

Exceptional stability of amides

Answer 395

A

3+ pi orbitals align with each other, electrons delocalize throughout

Absorbs UV light, easily detected by UV sprectroscopy

Answer 396

A

Electron delocalization

Huckels rule: 4n +2π electrons

pyridine, pyrimidine, purine all aromatic
- imidazole
- pyrrole

Answer 397

A

Something accomplished using energy

measured in Joules
1 J = 1 N x m

W = F d or W = Fdcosθ

W = P ∆V

Answer 398

A

Using a mechanical apparatus to perform work using less force

inclined plane, pulley, seesaw
- for ramps, incline length /incline height gives the amount of force increased by just going vertically

Winput = Woutput

Increasing distance decreases force put in, increases force put out

Answer 399

A

W/t (J/s) Watts

the faster a system can do more work, the more powerful it is

Answer 400

A

Capacity of an object to do work

E = KE + PE

all obj in motion have kinetic energy
KE = 1/2mv² Joules
- mass in kg

Answer 401

A

PE_grav= mgh

PE_elastic= energy stored in obj due to compression

1/2kx²

Answer 402

A

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, only changed

all energy creation is conversion from another form

closed system: no energy transfer (as heat)

Answer 403

A

Any force that causes energy to be lost from a system to the environment

Friction and air resistance

Answer 404

A

gh_i + 1/2v_i² = gh_f + 1.2v_f² (mass cancels)

Answer 405

A

W = ∆E

Positive work= work done on an object by its environment, increases objects energy

Negative work= work done by an object on environment, decreases objects energy

Answer 406

A

Awareness that we have of our surroundings, internal states and ourselves

Medical: humans aren’t always conscious

can vary in terms of degree and quality
- impaired by head trauma, sleeplessness, and substance abuse

Answer 407

A

Alertness: increased awareness

important brain structures: reticular formation and reticular activating system
- reticular formation: complex network of neuron clusters

Tiredness and fatigue: decreased awareness

sleep: temporarily and easily reversed loss of consciousness

Deeper unconscious is not easily reversed

Coma: lost consciousness, doesn’t react normally to stimuli, doesn’t move voluntarily, is not in normal sleep/wake cycle

Answer 408

A

Crucial to our ability to live

Chronic low-level sleep deprivation is associated with a range of bad outcomes, poor cognitive perormance, increased risk of obesity, heart disease, diabetes

Answer 409

A

Electroencaphelogram (EEG): brain activity

EMG: muscle activity

EVG: eye activity

Polysomnography: sleep study measuring multiple physiological parameters

Answer 410

A

Fully awake: beta waves, low frequency, high amplitude

Alpha waves: relaxed, calm, meditation, lower frequency

Answer 411

A

Quick bursts of eye movement
Similar brain waves to beta/alpha

atonia: little muscle movement

irregular breathing, heart rate (interupted homeostasis)
Majority of dreaming

REM stages get longer as night progresses

Greater total REM sleep = more restful

REM rebound: catch up on REM after missing sleep

Answer 412

A

Stage 1:

theta waves: low frequency and low amplitudes
- slow eye movement, light sleep

Stage 2:

theta waves with K-complexes: high amplitude bursts
sleep spindles: occ high freq bursts
- eye motion stops, heart rate and breathing slows

Stage 3

delta waves: high amplitude
- deep sleep (slow wave)
  - memory processing and rest

Answer 413

A

Adults have 90 minute cycles, children have 50 minute cycles

Answer 414

A

Circadian rhythm: 24 hr sleep/wake cycles

Pineal gland -> melatonin -> drowsiness

Adrenal cortex -> cortisol -> wakefulness

Answer 415

A

Difficulty falling asleep

Answer 416

A

Excessive daytime sleepiness

abnormal REM sleep
cataplexy: loss of muscle control, sleep paralysis
hypnagogic hallucinations

Answer 417

A

Airway obstruction during sleep

Answer 418

A

Disorders impairing ability to fall/stay asleep

Parasomnias: disorders involving abnormal behavior while asleep

sleepwalking (somnabulism)
night terrors - sleeper suddenly plunged into fight or flight response
nightmares

Answer 419

A

Manifest: surface level details

Latent: underlying meaning

Wish fulfillment: resolution of respressed conflict

Answer 420

A

Neurons activate during REM and synthesize experience

Answer 421

A

Dreams as a way of processing/resolving real world problems

Answer 422

A

Dreams are a visualization of our cognitive processes

Answer 423

A

Hypnotist induces a hyper suggestive state in a subject

extremely responsive to certain suggestions even after session
Receives considerable skepticism

Answer 424

A

Has been a part of religious traditions

quieting the mind, focusing attnetion
Beginners experience alpha waves, more experienced practitioners have theta waves

Included in wellness approaches

Answer 425

A

Caffeine- stimulant, increase activity in CNS

mimic sympathetic NS response, fight or flight

Antagonizes (blocks) adenosine (sleepiness) receptors

Answer 426

A

Pattern of compulsive behavior that repeatedly engages reward pathway

behavior persists despite negative consequences
dependence: absence of drug causes withdrawal symptoms

*biggest difference is compulsion and negative consequences

tolerance: heavy users need more of a drug for same effect

Answer 427

A

Nicotine

Amphetamines

MDMA

Cocaine

Answer 428

A

highly addictive

15% of adults smoke

Answer 429

A

Increased energy and alterness

concetration and focus
appetite reduction
mood swings, psychosis

Medication for ADHD

Answer 430

A

Ecstacy or molly

empathy and pleasure
energy, focus, appetite reduction
Promotes serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine release
- depletes serotonin reserves

Answer 431

A

Strong stimulant, blocks serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine reuptake causing buildup in brain

often inhaled, processed to smokable form of crack

Answer 432

A

Reduce activity in central NS; psychological and physiological effects, lowers heart rate, blood pressure, etc

Alcohol

Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines

Opioids

Endorphins

Hallucinogens

Marijuana

Answer 433

A

Enhances action of GABA receptors (main inhibitory neurotransmitter)

makes neurons fire less often, slowing brain down
Low doses reduce conscious inhibitions and planning activity

Higher doses affect speech, motor function, cognition, memory, etc.

anterograde amnesia: blackouts, inability to create new memories

Long term alcohol use elevates risk of cardiovascular disease/cancer

Once dependent on alcohol, stopping can lead to unpleasant or fatal withdrawal

hallucination anxiety seizures

Answer 434

A

Breathing stops –> death

acute alcohol intoxication

Answer 435

A

Associated with chronic alcoholism

anterograde amnesia: events starting after syndrome develops
retrograde amnesia: events before can’t recall

confabulation: invented memories

Answer 436

A

Increase GABA receptor (inhibitory) activity

Treat anxiety and insomnia
HIgh risk of overdose, addiction, and withdrawals
Don’t mix with alcohol

Answer 437

A

Cause sedation, sleepiness, respiratory depression

Pain relief, euphoria

Bind opioid receptors on neurons

morphine: derived from opium poppy

heroin: synthetic morphine derivative

makes you feel heroic
thought to be non addictive

Codeine, hydrocodone, oxycodone, fentanyl

Answer 438

A

Produced by body, naturally interact with opioid receptors

Block pain, induce euphoria

runners high
morphine and heroin are extremely potent endorphin agonists

Answer 439

A

Distort perceptions, enhance sensation, promote introspection

LSD, ketamine, peyote, psilocybin, PCP
Complex mechanisms

Answer 440

A

THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) is the psychoactive component of marijuana

Bind with cannabinoid receptors in brain
Body naturally produces endocannabinoids
- processes of appetite, mood and pain sensation

CBD: non psychoactive cannabinoid in marijuna

Complex profile of effects- stimulant, depressant, hallucinogenic

Answer 441

A

Compulsive behavior that triggers reqard pathway and is repeated pathologically despite negative consequences

mesolimbic pathway = reward pathway

prefrontal cortex: decision making

nucleus accumbens: dopamine uptake and motivation; associated with otivation and reinforcement learning

amygdala: memory and emotion

ventral tegmental area: dopamine release

Answer 442

A

Someone requires a drug to function normally

more stable than addiction, without the compulsivity
discontinuing may lead to withdrawal

Answer 443

A

ability to direct our awareness to a single aspect of external stimuli

Answer 444

A

Can be thought of as a spotlight

focus: full attention

fringe area: no attention

margin: partial attention

Answer 445

A

Basic sensory info enters a sensory buffer

from the sensory buffer, the mind selects something to focus on and process
- other info decays

Dichotic listening task- only pay attention to audo from one side of the headphones

shadowing: repeating words instantly, no memory component

We process info we are focuing on much more than other info

Answer 446

A

Can “tune in” to a particular stimulus, like a name being said from across the room

Background info is processed to some degree even if not the center of focus

Answer 447

A

Unattended info is attenuated (reduced in intensity)

intense/important info can come to attention
explains cocktail party effect

Answer 448

A

Direct attention causes people to miss things happening in the background

Invisible gorilla experiment

Answer 449

A

Failure to notice changes that take place

Answer 450

A

Color and design might subconsciously affect our mood and behavior

Answer 451

A

Most multi tasking is sequential attention (jumping back and forth)

Might perceive it as simultaneous attention because the switching happens quickly

Multitasking degrades one’s ability to perform complex tasks in comparison to in isolation

We have a certain capacity for attention that we allocate among tasks - proposed by Daniel Kahneman

Answer 452

A

Attention comes from distinct, specialized modules of the brain

Multitasking easier with different types of tasks

Answer 453

A

Conscious focus on a task

skills often start out requiring controlled processing

Answer 454

A

Unconscious work on a task, “autopilot”

with practice, skills can become automatically processed
Requires less attention, allows for more multitasking

Answer 455

A

Predominantly inattentive

not paying close attention to details
Trouble sustaining attention to details
Easily distracted

Predominantly hyperactive
* impulsive
Combined

Answer 456

A

Mind is a computer that receives data, processes some of it, then decides what to do

contrasts behaviorism: asserted only behavior can be studied scientifically

Answer 457

A

Proposed stages of childhood

1st developmental stage: sensorimotor

birth to 2 y/o
interact with world through processing sensory input and engaging in motor activities

Object permanence: things dont go away when you stop seeing them

Circular reactions: repitition of accidental or reactional actions

Stranger anxiety (8 or 9 months): strangers provoke intense worry

Answer 458

A

Preoperational stage: 2 to 7

represent objects symbolically with words/images

egocentrism: difficulty imaging the world from the perspective of others

centration: tendency to focus on a single property/parameter

ex. taller grass means more water

lack of conservation: same amount of substance is preserved in different shapes

Symbolic thought but minimal abstract reasoning

Answer 459

A

Concrete Operational Stage- 7 to 11

Develop an understanding of conservation
Loss of egocentrism
Develop logical reasoning skills
Perform better at inductive rather than deductive tasks

Answer 460

A

Formal Operational Stage: 11-16

Abstract logic

Can handle hypotheticals, reason abstractly, and make nuanced moral judgment

nuanced: subtle shades of meaning or expression

Schema: cognitive framework that organizes info about things that one perceives in the outside world, with implications for the actions that can be taken in response

ex. encounter cow that is yellow; either cant be a cow = assimilation or cows can be different colors accomodation

Answer 461

A

fluid: problem solving skills that can be applied to new situations without any reliance on previous knowledge

crystallized intelligence: ability to deploy one’s knowledge and skills to solve problems

Answer 462

A

Cognitive performance an decline with age

dementia: cognitive decline and memory impairments interfere with a person’s ability to function in the world

multiple symptoms with multiple causes
- causes include Alzheimer’s disease (accumulation of B-amyloid plaques), tiny brain bleeds, etc.

hepatic encephalopathy: liver can no longer effectively remove toxins which impacts brain function

Answer 463

A

Try different options and see what works

reflects lack of conceptual understanding, used when we have the timeresources to explore many possible solutions

Modern drug design

Thomas Edison

Answer 464

A

Involves applying a fixed set of steps

designed with preparation and insight
Application requires no conceptual understanding of the problem

Very specific instructions

ex. having a routine for solving physics problem but not understanding conceptually

Answer 465

A

Top down

Applying general principles to a specific situation

Answer 466

A

Bottom up

Successive observations extrapolated to identify general principles

vulnerable to overgeneralizations

Answer 467

A

Used to solve a porblem similar to one we’ve seen before

closely related to intuition

Answer 468

A

Gut sense of how to solve a problem

corresponds to analogies that we aren’t consciously aware of

Answer 469

A

The framework that we use for conceptualizing a problem and trying to solve it

Answer 470

A

Getting stuck in existing ways of thinking about things

Functional: tendency to see objects as only having a certain function

Answer 471

A

Maintaining or strengthing beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence

Answer 472

A

cognitive biases: systemic, generally subconscious patterns of thought that skew reasoning

Answer 473

A

Reasoning in a way that favors info supporting our preexisting conclusions/beliefs

ex. more likely to notice news we agree with

Answer 474

A

Interphase

Mitosis

Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

3 Flashcards

Brainscape's Knowledge Genome^TM