4 Flashcards

Question

American sign language has its own

Answer 1

Grammar and words

Answer 2

**B.F. Skinner** observable behavior Learning theory of language Nativist theory Generative linguistics Interactionist Theory

Answer 3

Language as behavior based on environmental input * no innate language capacity

Answer 4

**Noam Chomsky** Humans have innate (genetic) capacity for language

Answer 5

grammatical rules which govern sentences, certain sentence structures don't work

Answer 6

Language is acquired during social interaction * language leaning is interactive and functional

Answer 7

Studied Hopi language No past/future tenses, no sense of time passing continuously **Sapir-Whorf (linguistic relativity):** grammatical categories and vocabulary influence thought

Answer 8

Grammatical categories determine thought

Answer 9

An impaired ability to communicate **Wernicke's aphasia:** impaired language comprehension aka fluent aphasia **Broca's aphasia:** understand language but impaired speech production

Answer 10

Connects broca's and wernickes areas **conductive aphasia:** arcuate fasciculus lesions cause difficulties with repeating other peoples words

Answer 11

RNA stored info and catalyzed reactions before DNA

Answer 12

Similar to replication * Copying DNA into complementary strand, both occur in nucleus * Don't have to worry about lagging or leading strands or replicating ends of chromosomes 1. Douple helix unzipped by **helicase,** kept open by **single stranded binding proteins (SSBP)** **2.** Tension created upstream relieved by **topoisomerase** enzyme 3. **RNA pol** catalyzes transcription; locates specific sequences for genes its interested in * upstream promoter **TATA box,** A-T rich sequence recognized by RNA pol * bonds with the help of **transcription factors** **\*\*** Reads DNA template 3' to 5', makes mRNA 3 to 5 4. Reaches transcription terminator sequence

Answer 13

Not as accurate as DNA polymerase Error rate higher, not as high of a risk

Answer 14

Strand being read by RNA pol in transcription

Answer 15

Sequence identical to new RNA with thymine instead of Uracil

Answer 16

Synthesizes rRNA in nucleolus Synthesizes hnRNA (heteronuclear)(mRNA precursor) SYnthesizes tRNA, some rRNA

Answer 17

In prokaryotes, new RNA is immediately ready to be translated - Transcription and translation occur simultaneously on same RNA molecule Prokaryotic RNA is polycistronic, can code for multiple proteins

Answer 18

pre mRNA that undergoes **posttranscriptional modification** 1. RNA gains **polyA tail** at 3' end: facilitates binding to nuclear export proteins, assist with mRNA translocation through pores in nuclear membrane * main purpose is to protect mRNA from degradation in cytosol when going from nucleus to cytosolic ribosomes * degradation by 3' **exonucleases** * more adenine residues = better defense 2. **5' cap:** one nucleotide modification, triphosphate linkage * protects mRNA against degradation, facilitates nuclear export (recognized by tranport proteins) * also recognition for ribosomes 3. RNA splicing- splicing introns

Answer 19

**introns:** intervening sequences of noncoding, spliced **exons:** expressed sequences which are ligated back together Catalyzed by **splicosome** made up of proteins and snRNA which combine to form snRNP (small nuclear ribonuclear proteins) * snRNPs recognize marker sequences at end of introns, pulling them together to form lariat loop One mRNA precursor can be spliced to code for different proteins

Answer 20

RNA components capable of enzymatic activity

Answer 21

RNA nucleotides arranged in triplet codons and code for aminos **secreted proteins:** membrane bound ribosomes on rough ER, fed into ER then directed to golgi apparatus -\> secretory vesicles **cytoplasmic proteins:** come from free ribosomes in cytoplasm **Ribosomal rRNA:** ribozymal component of ribosomes, catalyzes formation of peptide bonds

Answer 22

Multiple codons can correspond to one amino acid

Answer 23

clover leaf hairpin secondary structure, recognize triplet codons on mRNA and attach corresponding amino acids to growing chain each tRNA has unique **anticodon** complementary to mRNA codon tRNA becomes **"charged"** when bound to corresponding amino * to charge tRNA with correct amino * **amino acyl-tRNA synthetase** links C-terminus of aminos to 3' end of tRNA * requires ATP, which energy is later harnessed to create peptide bond

Answer 24

1 tRNA can recognize several codons, usually where 3rd amino differs -- creates same amino

Answer 25

Expensive to cell in terms of ATP (charging tRNAs) - \*One reason gene expression is tightly regulated, so ATP isn't wasted - Makes only necessary proteins

Answer 26

1. Small ribosomal subunits recognize and binds specific mRNA sequence * in prokaryotes, location is the **Shine-Dalgarno sequence** in 5' untranslated region upstream of start * In eukaryotes, recognize **5' cap** and intiator tRNA binds to start codon **AUG** * ****tRNA is always charged with **methionine first** **2.** **initiation factors** facilitate binding of large subunit to small, forming **initiation complex**

Answer 27

1. Ribosome with **elongation factors** read mRNA 5' to 3' * one triplet codon at a time * Ribosome synthesizes polypeptide from N-terminus to C-terminus * N-C polarity of all aminos 2. Ribosome assemply has 3 binding site for tRNA: **A acceptor site, P peptidyl site (forms peptide bond), E exit site,** uncharged tRNA leaves * tRNAs move over exposing A site

Answer 28

Occurs when ribosome encounters 1 of 3 stop codons: **UAA, UAG, UGA** Don't code for an amino, instead recognized by **release factors at P site** Ribosome evicts protein and moves onto next mRNA

Answer 29

Mostly in rough ER and golgi apparatus * addition of carbohydrates and some protein cleavage * proteins can be covalently linked to variety of functional groups * ex. * phosphorylation: adding high energy phosphate group by **kinase enzymes** **Glycolysation:** addition of carbohydration moieties, often catalyzed in golgi apparatus **Ubiquitation:** addition of ubquitin proteins, used to designate proteins for degradation in the cell Protein folding, disulfide bonds, proteolytic processing

Answer 30

adding high energy phosphate group to proteins or other molecules by **kinase** enzymes

Answer 31

addition of carbohydration moieties to proteins after translation, often catalyzed in golgi apparatus * relevant for ABO blood typing; based on presence/absence of **A and B glycoproteins** on red blood cells Posttranslational modification

Answer 32

addition of ubquitin proteins, used to designate proteins for degradation in the cell

Answer 33

**Chaperone proteins** in cytoplasm or ER

Answer 34

Bonds between neaby cysteine residues, linking two parts of a protein - Maintaining tertiary structure

Answer 35

Cleaved at specific sites, sometimes to generate two separate peptides with unique functions - Also activates proteins sometimes

Answer 36

Preprohormone which is cleaved into **prohormone** which is cleaved into hormone before relased from cell \*\* Prevents premature activation, which can be dangerous ex. Pancreas contains host of proteolytic enzymes for digestion in dormant state * only activated in small intestine for digesting proteins * in **acute pancreatitis** become prematurely activated; rampant proteolytic activity

Answer 37

Diploid human cell contains about 20,000 genes but only express specific subsets at specific times in response to specific stimuli

Answer 38

Stem cells into diff tissues and specialized cell types **stem cells:** relatively undifferentiated cells capable of differentiating * embryonic and somatic

Answer 39

**Mesenchymal stem cells:** produce fat, bone, and liver cells **Intestinal stem cells** **Hematopoietic:** generate blood cells

Answer 40

Limits to their cell differentiation **totipotent:** can differentiate to any type of cell * in humans, only embryos up to morula or 16 cell stage **pluripotent:** capable of differentiating into many different cell types * **ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm** (primary germ layers) * can't differentiate into cells of placent **multipotent:** adult, limited subset of cell types within germ layer Totipotent and pluripotent can be used for generating tissue and organ grafts, controversial * cancer cells can become less differentiated and pluripotency can be artificially induced

Answer 41

Programmed cell death, intentional * critical role in embryonic development * ex. webbed fingers before apoptosis Checkpoint for when things go wrong

Answer 42

**Operon:** genetic system used by prokaryotes to regulate the expression of specific genes; under positive or negative control * contains regulatory sequence with promoter, and operator **positively controlled gene:** genes expressed when activator present * **activator** molecule binds to regulatory gene **negatively controlled gene:** genes expressed unless repressor present * **repressor** binds to **operator**

Answer 43

Negative inducible; expression induced by removal of repressor **negative inducible:** default is off, expression induced by specific signal removed repressor

Answer 44

PROKARYOTES (has operon) Expression is repressed by binding of repressor * **negative repressible:** default is on Contains genes for synthesis of amino acid **tryptophan** * abundant supply tryptophan represses transcription

Answer 45

Much more complex. Short sequences recognized by **mediator proteins** which recruit **RNA pol III** **TATA box** bound by TATA binding protein which associates with other proteins to act as a transcription factor for RNA polymerase * **transcription factors:** bind to specific DNA sequences to regulate gene expression; recruit other regulatory proteins that make chemical modifications to DNA * \*play pivotal role in activity/identity of given cell

Answer 46

Gene expression Sequences which promote enhanced expression of genes in response to stimuli, can be upstream or downstream * bind to transcription factors known as **activators** which twist DNA into a hairpin * brings enhancer region closer to gene sequence to facilitate intiation of transcription ex. estrogen binding its nuclear estrogen receptor, which then binds enhancers

Answer 47

Gene expression Sequence that when bound by a repressor, silence or repress expression of genes

Answer 48

In nucleus, DNA is wound around histones and then condensed further into tightly packed **heterochromatin** or relatively loose **euchromatin** **Acetylation/deactylation:** certain enzymes can modify histones by adding/removing acetyl groups * affect how easy DNA is accessed * **histone acetyltransferases:** add acetyl groups, makes DNA more accessible for transcription * **histone deacetyltransferases** reduce transcription **Methylation:** add methyl groups to cytosine or adenine * deactivates gene sequences, preventing their expression

Answer 49

Heritable changes that affect gene expression without directly changing the genetic sequence - Can be transmitted through multiple generations

Answer 50

Non coding RNA that can interfere with gene expression - Degrade mRNA prior to translation **- siRNA (double stranded) and microRNA (ss)** siRNA or microRNA incorporated into **RNA induced silencing complex (RISC)** * pairs with complementary target mRNA transcipt, cleaves it

Answer 51

Fallopian tubes, unless in vitro fertilization

Answer 52

1. Mature egg released from ovary into abdominal cavity before being swept up by cilia into fallopian tubes 2. As egg is being transported to uterus, sperm makes its way up fallopian tubes * at this point egg is **secondary oocyte (**undergone meiosis I and stalled at metaphase in meiosis II) * Sperm must pass through **corona radiata** layer of follicular cells and then **zona pellucida** layer of glycoproteins * When sperm head makes contact with particular glycoprotein, triggers the **acrosome reaction** * ****release of digestive enzymes that permit entry of sperm and nuclueus into egg 3. Secondary oocyte proceeds to complete meiosis II, forming a **polar body** and a mature, **fertilized ovum** * haploid nuclei of sperm and ovum fuse to form diploid called **ZYGOTE**

Answer 53

Mitochondria to power long journey - Any sperm mitochondria that enter egg are destroyed, _mitochondria inherited maternally_

Answer 54

Once one reaches egg, egg releases **cortical granules** which cause surface glycoproteins to form cross links which prevent _polyspermy_ * fertilization by multiple sperm

Answer 55

1. Continues to divide into **blastula** * has fluid filled cavity called **blastocoel** * outer layer of cells surrounding blastocoel is the **trophoblast** * ****forms the _placenta_ * __**inner cell mass:** mass of cells at one pole of the cell, develops into cells of **fetus** 2. As it reaches the uterus, **blastula** implants itself into uterine wall * if zygote implants in fallopian tube or cervix = **ectopic pregnancy** * ****nonviable and can be dangerous for mother 3. Trophoblast begins forming placenta, inner cell mass begins to form **yolk sac** and **amnion** which become the amniotic sac 4. Firmly implanted in uterine wall, blastula differentiates into a **gatrula - undergoes gastrulation**

Answer 56

Requires reciprocal cooperation between embryo and uterine tissue which undergo structural changes and responds to hormonal signals as embryo implants in **uterine endometrium** in cervix Trophoblast then begins forming placenta

Answer 57

yolk sac and amnion Membranous sac containing **amniotic fluid** which the fetus develops in

Answer 58

Formation of 3 primary germ layers 1. **endoderm:** internal derm, gives rise to many of internal organs * urinary bladder and gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, epithelial linings 2. **mesoderm:** means to move, gives rise to connective tissue, muscle, circulatory system, kidneys, adrenal glands, and gonads 3. **ectoderm:** external derm, gives rise to nervous system, skin, eyes, ears, nose, hair, and teeth enamel * **neurulation:** early development of nervous system

Answer 59

Gives rise to nervous system 1-3 weeks after fertilization 1. Rod of mesodermal cells form **notochord** which induces the formation of **neural plate** from _ectoderm cells_ * neural plate invaginates to form neural folds and a **central neural groove** **2.** continues to fold until folds meet and form **neural tube** * neural tube gives rise to _central nervous system_ (brain and spinal cord) * **neural crest cells** will migrate from neural folds to form _peripheral nervous system_

Answer 60

**1. Mature egg** **2. Secondary oocyte** once in fallopian tubes (undergone meiosis I, stalled at metaphase in meiosis II) **3. Fetilized ovum** once gone through meiosis II **4. Zygote:** haploid nuclei of sperm and ovum fuse to form diploid **5. Morula:** after cleavage **6. Blastula** after more division **7. Gastrula** once implanted in uterine endometrium in cervix

Answer 61

help the body absorb and retain calcium and phosphorus; both are critical for building bone

Answer 62

Hypothalamic hormone tells anterior pituitary to release thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) which tells thyroid to produce T3 and T4

Answer 63

Hypothalamic hormone which tells anterior pituitary to release LH and FSH which play roles in reproduction and growth * in males LH, stimulates Leydig cells in testes to release testosterone and FSH promotes spermatogenesis * in females, LH stimulates estrogen production from ovaries, FSH promotes maturation of ovarian follicles

Answer 64

Hypothalamic hormone releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which travels to adrenal cortex and produces corticosteroids: stress response and circadian rhythms

Answer 65

Polarity, solubility, boiling point

Answer 66

Takes advantage of two liquid phases: polar aqueous phase (usually water) and relatively nonpolar organic phase (organic solvent, immiscible with water (don't mix)) * liquid half in separatory funnel, denser liquid at the bottom Like dissolves like, shaking the funnel separates them into polar and nonpolar solutes \*\***If compound is uncharged and has both polar and nonpolar groups, non polar groups win** * by using acid base properties, you can add protons to create polarity

Answer 67

Only if one of the acids is much stronger than the other (lower pKa)

Answer 68

easily transitions from liquid to gas phase

Answer 69

Separates liquid by their boiling point using votality and vapor pressure **vapor pressure:** pressure exerted by liquid molecules 1. Round bottom flask with mixture is heated 1. Liquid becomes gas and rises up to a condensor 2. Cold water around condensor changes gas back to liquid Doesn't always separate perfectly --\> REPEAT DISTILLATIONS

Answer 70

Highest polarity: trong hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole interactions Largest molecular weight (not as much of priority)

Answer 71

Uses fractional distillation to separate liquids with close boiling points 1. Increases vertical distance that vapor travels 2. Allows vapor to recondense and revaporize repeatedly

Answer 72

Vapor pressure of liquid reaches atmospheric pressure Lower the boiling point by lowering the ambient pressure = **vacuum distillation**

Answer 73

In all chromatography, two phases: **Mobile phase:** moving fluid or gas **Stationary phase:** immobile substance that retains some molecules moving through the mobile phase Solutes travelling at different speeds based on affinity for mobile and stationary phases

Answer 74

Can be used to detect impurities in a sample _Stationary phase:_ glass or plastic plate coated with a thin layer of absorbent material like silica gel (HIGHLY POLAR) _Mobile phase:_ nonpolar solvent such as hexane, referred to as "eluent" 1. Spots are placed at bottom of stationary phase plate and just above mobile phase solvent 2. Capillary action pulls mobile phase up the plate, compounds in the sample will also travel upward **Nonpolar** particles travel further than **polar** (have higher affinity for plate and don't want to move) Allows us to make rough measurements of polarity of compounds using **Retention Factor (Rf) = distance travelled by compound/distance travelled by solvent** **-** nonpolar compounds have higher Rf typically

Answer 75

For larger quantities of material _Stationary phase:_ solid adsorbent packed in vertial column, sample is added here _Mobile phase:_ solvent poured through column (eluent) 1. **size exclusion:** separate components based on physical size 1. stationary phase has pore studded beads, _larger molecules pass through faster_ (OPPOSITE of what we'd think) 2. **cation exchange:** traps positive molecules, negatively charged stationary phase 3. **anion exchange:** opposite 4. **afffinity:** ligands designed to bind to molecule of interest are attached to stationary phase 1. once solution has passed through, dissociate bound compound of interest 5. **gas-liquid:** gas mobile phase and sample, liquid is stationary phase 1. time spent in compound depends on volatility and affinity 2. smaller compounds have earlier peaks when analyzed

Answer 76

**Recrystallization** 1. Solid product placed in liquid solvent and heated to dissolve 2. Mixture cooled again and solid allowed to reform 1. typically excludes many impurities present before Ideal solvent is one in which desired product is soluble at high temperature, relatively insoluble in low temp Often repeated many times over

Answer 77

**Nucleation** Nucleus or tiny seed crystal initiates crystallization Scratch side of glass

Answer 78

Analysis of molecules based on interaction with electromagnetic radiation

Answer 79

* Lower energy waves, like microwaves, can rotate molecules * Infrared waves can cause bonds to stretch and bend * Visible and UV waves can excite electrons to higher energy levels * some are ionizing, can remove electrons * All X-rays and gamma rays are ionizing, which can cause DNA damage

Answer 80

Uses infrared radiation and molecule interactions \*\*\*different bonds have distinct ways of interacting with IR radiation * \*\* must be a dipole present, usually polar covalent bonds * **vibrational frequencies:** even those with dipole present, requires specific frequency of IR radiation to stretch or bend _x-axis:_ differenw wavelengths of IR radiation _y-axis:_ transmittance (low transmittance means high absorption) PEAKS ONLY HELPFUL FROM 1500-4000

Answer 81

Low frequency (below 2000) \*\*\* Carbonyl at 1650, SHARP PEAK Medium frequency (low 2000s) 3100-3500 BROAD AND WIDE 3300-3500

Answer 82

Electron excitement due to UV light (electrons move to higher energy orbitals) UV and visible light usually absorbed by molecules with non-bonding or pi electrons * conjugated compounds (alternating single and double bonds) are fantastic at absorbing UV light * overlapping p orbitals which delocalize Each molecule has peak absorption values that correspons to wavelengths of light most readily absorbed (opposite of IR transmittance) _y-axis:_ percent **absorbance=** proportion of light absorbed by sample _x-axis:_ wavelength (nm)

Answer 83

absorbance is proportional to the path length, b, through the sample and the concentration of the absorbing species, A= α b · c. A = absorbance α = molar absorptivity b = length of light path c = concentration Absorbance proportional to concentration

Answer 84

**Tryptophan, Tyrosine, Phenylalanine** all capable of absorbing UV light through aromatic ring structures (with conjugated pi electrons) * each has different spectrum \*\*\* UV spectrum of any peptide depends on aromatic amino content

Answer 85

Colored compounds absorb some wavelengths of light and reflect others; we perceive an object to have color of the wavelength it reflects * UV/Vis spectroscopy is basically identifying compounds based on their color

Answer 86

Characterizing a molecules atoms (unlike IR which characterizes bonds) by how they interact with magnetic field * either spin with field at lower energy or against it Protons and neutrons have opposite spins that cancel out, if atom as even number than won't show up on NMR; requires **net magnetic moment** from unequal spins **¹HNMR and** **¹³CNMR** Location on graph depends on shielding and deshielding of nucleus; carboxylic acids and electronegative atoms are deshielding and to the left on graph

Answer 87

**1. Number of signals** (equivalence, H's bonded to same carbon count as 1) **2. Position of signals** relative to most electronegative atoms (oxygens for example) - Most shielded are further from EN groups, further right on graph **3. Size of signal:** height is proportional to number of protons represented by signal 4. **Shape of signal (splitting):** caused by interference with neighboring protons (bonded to a different adjacent carbon) * **n+1** * each peak split into number corresponding to hydrogen atoms nearby

Answer 88

Uses carbon and isotope carbon 13 Same as HNMR except no splitting 1. FIRST STEP: determine number of equivalent carbons * Equivalent carbons are a single peak * carbonyl carbon will be much further downfield * terminal carbons are upfield

Answer 89

Uses magnetism to determine mass 1. First step is ionization using an electron beam 1. creates ions and can break apart molecules 2. **parent ion**: ion created by loss of just one electron and no fragmentation **M⁺** 1. maintains parent molecular weight but is charged 2. Accelerate into magnetic field and uses Fb = Bqvsin0 to determine the angle of deflection 1. separated by mass to charge ratio y axis is relative abundance, x axis is **m/z** **\*\*\* M⁺**is the peak furthest to the right and thats how you determine the molecular mass

Answer 90

Charged macromolecules like DNA or protein are suspended in agarose gel and migrate due to application of electric current Separates by size or charge * **Cathode:** negative charge * **Anode:** positive charge DNA negative phosphate groups move towards anode Can isolate to just size by negating charge of proteins using SDS (anionic detergent) which UNFOLDS and makes neutral charge * requires reducing agent to fully denature quaternary/tertiary structure

Answer 91

Gives them a uniform negative charge for gel electrophoresis

Answer 92

ssDNA or RNA to bond with cDNA or cRNA Used to anneal DNA strands and artificially replicate DNA

Answer 93

Transfer of DNA or protein from a gel to another membrane where molecules of interest can be visualized * Southern * Northern * Western 1. Sample undergoes gel electrophoresis (proteins mix w/ SDS to neutralize charge) and separation is BY SIZE 2. Contents transferred to nitrocellulose membrane 3. Use hybridization to tag sample with visual marker either cDNA/cRNA or a tagged antibody for proteins 4. Detect molecule of interest with conjugated probe

Answer 94

Southern Northern o Western DNA RNA o Protein

Answer 95

Uses hybridization to analyze tens of thousands of genes simultaneously on a chip ex. cancer cells vs healthy cells

Answer 96

Replication of DNA fragment sample is prematurely terminated using one of the 4 labeled **ddNTPs (**dideoxynucleoside triphosphates) which each stop for a different nucleotide * \*\*\* lacks 3' OH required to extend nucleotide chain Then different sized strands separated by gel electrophoresis Requires large number of genetic copies of same sequence -- PCR

Answer 97

Repeated cycles of DNA sequencing that doubles them each time * Can also amplify RNA if it is reverse transcribed Primers specific to target sequence 1. Reaction heated to 95 deg C to denature two strands of DNA 2. Cooled to allow primers to anneal to template strands 3. Heated again to initiate synthesis by DNA polymerase = **Taq polymerase** Heating and cooling done by **thermocyclers**

Answer 98

1. Extract by lysing cellular membranes either by freezing and thawing, solvents, detergents * often treated with protease inhibitors to keep lysed proteins from degrading other cells * cooled and pH maintained 2. Separation by centrifugation * **pellet:** heavy dense particles * **supernatant:** proteins usually stay in solution or by solubility: changing salt concentrations of surroundings 3. Use chromatography to isolate desired protein

Answer 99

High value is nonpolar Low value is polar

Answer 100

pH at which protein has a net charge of 0 Separates proteins of different charge states using special gel based on number of basic or acidic residues * can be combined with SDS PAGE for 2D gel electrophoresis

Answer 101

Used for tagging proteins in separation techniques = western blotting

Answer 102

Techniques that rely on binding specificities of antibodies to identify proteins **western blotting** **radioimmunoassay:** conc of protein in sample measured indirectly by looking at unlabeled proteins reacting with labeled antigens **ELISA:** antigens in sample are attached to plate and antibodies apply; after washing, amount of bound antibody is measured with fluorescence

Answer 103

Results of many studies cannot be replicated or reproduced in efforts to repeat the studies Due to methodology -- need procedures to be airtight

Answer 104

Only significant or interesting results are published

Answer 105

Important goal in study design to ensure applicability to real populations (external validity) **Sampling bias:** population sampled isn't representative of population as a whole The larger the sample size the more likely it is to represent the entire population -- increases statistical power

Answer 106

Control groups - Equal number of sample receive control as do experiment **negative controls:** expect a negative result **positive controls:** expect a positive result

Answer 107

Randomization Blinding Controls Large sample

Answer 108

Provide mechanistic link between independent and dependent variables Help explain relationship

Answer 109

Affect the strength of a relationship Age, gender, socioeconomic class

Answer 110

Affect both the independent and dependent variables; obscures the true relationship * bigger problem with observational studies Risk can be reduced by making statistical adjustments for possible confounding variables

Answer 111

Analyzing the results of multiple randomized controlled trials would give even more confidence in results

Answer 112

instances in which an animal's behaviour toward a stimulus changes in the absence of any apparent associated stimulus or event

Answer 113

Phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Answer 114

product of force and time (kg\*m) / s

Answer 115

Acetyl group contains a methyl group single-bonded to a carbonyl

Answer 116

If there are 5 chiral centers, 2⁵ 2ⁿ

Answer 117

As temp increases, resistance increases linearly

Answer 118

An enzyme is a chiral catalyst capable of preferentially forming one enantiomer because a lower energy chiral transition state leads to the preferred product

Answer 119

Best primers for PCR have a high GC content and CG bases in 5′ and 3′

Answer 120

Anaphase I

Answer 121

If oxygen is scarce or absent, the product of glycolysis will be transformed into lactic acid instead of acetyl-CoA. Thus, the cell will produce less acetyl-CoA.

Answer 122

indicates presence of a thiol group

Answer 123

regulates pivotal physiologic processes including metabolism, secretion, calcium homeostasis, muscle contraction, cell fate, and gene transcription. cAMP is a cyclic nucleotide that serves as a vital second messenger in several signaling pathways.

Answer 124

Red litmus paper is a base indicator. It turns blue at 8.1 pH and higher. While not a measure of pH levels, it's a quick and accurate way to determine if a solution is alkaline

Answer 125

The color arises because nickel(II) ion has partially filled d orbitals and the electrons in the lower energy d orbitals absorb visible light to move to the higher energy d orbitals.

Answer 126

Lower for more polar molecules for a polar starting material

Answer 127

Methylation: add methyl groups to cytosine or adenine * deactivates gene sequences, preventing their expression

Answer 128

an inversion of stereochemistry (R to S or vice versa)

Answer 129

the number of photons, and the intensity of electromagnetic radiation is defined as energy emitted per unit time. Thus, intensity is directly proportional to the number of photons emitted

Answer 130

α−1, 6-glycosidic bonds α-1,4-Glycosidic bond

Answer 131

false negatives

Answer 132

Echoic memory: the ultra-short-term memory for things you hear. Iconic memory: involves the memory of visual stimuli.

Answer 133

a small depression in the retina of the eye where visual acuity is highest. The center of the field of vision is focused in this region, where retinal cones are particularly concentrated.

Answer 134

CH₄ - methane C₂H₆ - ethane C₃H₈ - propane C₄H₁₀ - butane pentane, hexane, heptane, octane Substituents in alphabetical order before parent chain ex. 3-ethyl-4,5-dimethyloctane

Answer 135

Longest/most C's in a way that results in lowest possible #'s for substituents

Answer 136

Nearly all tissues, especially fetal, erythrocytes, and cancer cells - Baseline cellular uptake, expression increases when glucose is low

Answer 137

Liver, kidney, pancreatic B cells - Bidirectional transport for glycolysis, glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis - Uptake and export

Answer 138

Neurons, placenta - High glucose affinity, transports glucose into cell even when extracellular concentration is low

Answer 139

Skeletal and cardica muscle, adipose tissue - Storage as glycogen or triglycerides, upregulated by glucose and insulin - insulin sensitive Type 2 diabetes- GLUT4 becomes insensitive to insulin, stops being expressed at normal insulin levels

Answer 140

Total number of bonds in molecules divided by the number of BOND GROUPS (i.e. one double bond and one single bond = 2 bond groups) they are connected to

Answer 141

Resonance in peptide bonds causes: * planar geometry * restricted rotation of peptide bonds * exceptional stability of amides

Answer 142

3+ pi orbitals (double bonds) align with eachother - Electrons delocalize throughout - Absorbs UV light, easily detected by UV spectroscopy Much more stable, lower energy

Answer 143

**1. Carboxylic acid** carboxy- -oic acid **2. Ester RCOOR**' oxycarbonyl- -oate **3. Acid halides****RCOX** halocarbonyl- -oyl halide **4. Amide** carbomoyl- -amide **5. Aldehydes** oxo- -al **6. Ketones** oxo- -one **7. Alcohols** hydroxy- -ol **8. Thiols** **mercapto-** -thiol **9. Alkanes** **10. Ethers**

Answer 144

cyclopropane (3 carbons), cyclobutane * constrained rings highly unstable - phenyl

Answer 145

boiling points LARGER alkanes have higher boiling points - Alkanes generally low melting and boiling points = **VOLATILE** **-** only london dispersion forces

Answer 146

very reactive, great leaving groups

Answer 147

REACTIVE Double and triple bonds have extra electron density, act as nucleophiles in reactions

Answer 148

Electron delocalization, fully conjugated ring * **Huckels rule:** 4n + 2π electrons \* each double bond is 2 pi electrons Benzene has 3 double bonds, 6 pi electrons 4n + 2 = 6 n= 1

Answer 149

Genes expressed more or less with environemtnal stimuli * DNA promoters initiate expression of some genes * Regulatory genes code for proteins that affect gene expression Theory that variations could affect behavior * ex. Allele in gene for promoting serotonin makes people susceptible to depression

Answer 150

Changes to genome that don't involve changing actual nucleotide content ex. methylation of cytosine silences specific genes - stress, exercise, heritable

Answer 151

Characterizing **heritability (**how much is a trait determined by genes alone) of a trait * Slope = 1 * all variation from genetics * Slope = 0 * environmental factors/ chance Pyschological trait heritability: .3-.6 (genetic and enviuronmental factors - Schizophrenia = .8

Answer 152

Twin studies - monozygotic and dizygotic Adopted children- genetics of real parent but environment of foster

Answer 153

Monozygotic twins are formed by one sperm and one egg. Dizygotic twins are formed by two different sperm and two different eggs Monozygotic = identical Dizygotic = fraternal