2 Flashcards

Question

Mass Media

Answer 1

Radio, television, and newspapers * small number of radio stations, newpapers and TV channels could reach large majority of public * helps shape **popular cultures (pop cultures)** * ****of the people (population) Emergence of the internet has decentralized pop culture

Answer 2

Culture has been a major driver of human evolution * genetic traits that help humans use tools skillfully and participate in process of passing down that knowledge will be favored evolutionarily * **tool/technology use** impacts reproductive success and evolution

Answer 3

**Culture Lag:** when _material culture_ changes faster than the _nonmaterial culture_ can "catch up" * ex. testing introduced, took time for norms about social texting * Can be seen within one culture or between cultures **Culture Shock:** Sense of unease when immersed in a new culture * Feeling out of place navigating new social norms in an unfamiliar environment * immigrants, anthropologists

Answer 4

Cultural diversity **Assimilation:** integration into the predominant culture * learning major language, adopting cultural norms * affected by residential segregation and acceptance by society **Multiculturalism:** preservation of original cultures within local communities

Answer 5

**Transmission:** elements of a culture passed down from one generation to another * rituals, myths, values, symbols **Diffusion:** cultural elements passed from one culture to another

Answer 6

Common structure * Carbon chains **hydrated** with hydrogen and oxygen atoms * **C_m(H₂O)_n** Glucose is carbohydrate fuel source in most organisms; synthesized by plants/algae via photosynthesis and consumed by animals

Answer 7

Sugar monomer, building blocks of complete carbohydrates * many can be directly absorbed into bloodstream by small intestine and broken down for energy Either an aldose and ketose ex. Glucose Usually colorless, water soluble, and sweet

Answer 8

Classified by number of carbons in their skeleton; most are **D-isomers** * **triose-** glyceraldehyde in glycolysis * **tetrose** * **pentose-** ribose (nucleic acids, RNA) * ribose 5-phosphate key component of pentose phosphate pathway * **\*\*hexose-** glucose, fructose, galactose \*\*Recognize structural differences (picture)

Answer 9

Most abundant monosaccharide on earth, major role in metabolism and syntheiszed by plants for polysaccharide cellulose (cell wall) * In aqueous solution, exists primarily as **pyranose (ring structure)** **Aldose:** glucose contains aldehyde functional group In Fischer Projection, hydroxyl on carbon 3 points opposite direction as other hydroxyl groups

Answer 10

Hexose with 5 membered ring * honey, fruits, root vegetables, synthetic food additive * high fructose corn syrup linked to obesity, diabetes Also found in disaccharide **sucrose** with glucose

Answer 11

**Aldose** that can be easily converted to glucose through metabolic pathway Avocados, beets, honey Milk and cheese as component of disaccharide lactose

Answer 12

**Glycosidic bonds-** formed by dehydration reactions, liberating H₂O molecule * transforms hemiacetal/hemiketal group into a acetal /ketal group

Answer 13

**Glycosyltransferases** create new glycosidic bonds * _glycogen synthase_ in the liver **Glycosidase** enzyme breaks glycosidic bonds via acid-catalyzed hydrolysis reaction * Beta-galactosidase hydrolyzes glycosidic bond of lactose to liberate glucose and galactose \*\*Always involve anomeric carbon of at least one sugar

Answer 14

5 and 6 carbon carbohydrates have an **anomeric carbon** **Anomers:** carbohydrate isomers that differ in their orientation of their substituents (hydroxyl group) at anomeric carbon * \*\*\*In linear form, only carbon with double bond to oxygen Due to carbonyl, anomeric carbon is **electrophile,** site of nucleophilic attack for cyclization * Hydroxyl groups far down carbon chain serve as nucleophiles * closer ones to anomeric carbon would cause too much steric strain \*\*Unlike diastereomers and enantiomers, anomers interconvert at equilibrium

Answer 15

Alpha and beta monomer depending on how ring system closes during cyclization * can completely change the properties of the sugar

Answer 16

Two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds; physical and chemical properties depend on sugar components and where they're linked * crystalline, soluble in water, sweet **Sucrose-** table sugar; composed of glucose and fructose **Lactose-** dairy productsl galactose and glucose * majority of worlds adults lack lactase, **lactose intolerant** * all mammals express lactase in childhood for breast milk but expression turns off * northern european and african heritages continue expression **Maltose-** two glucose monomers; less sweet than sucrose

Answer 17

Thick layer of carbohydrates that avoids detection by hosts immune system because it masks **antigenic proteins** on the cell surface

Answer 18

Long chains of carbohydrate monomers linked together * vaccines contain inert polysaccharide capsules (mask antigenic proteins of bacteria) so immune system can recognize them

Answer 19

Polymers of glucose that plants use to store energy; also pack vegetables and grain with carbs * One of the most important sources of dietary carbohydrates * potatoes, rice, wheat Made up of 30% amylose and 70% Amylopectin

Answer 20

Storage of flucose in animals, fungi, and bacteria Stored in the **liver and skeletal muscle** * **Liver** synthesizes glycogen from glucose when energy is abundant, breaks in down if not * **Skeletal muscle** tends to store it uses it to power muscles during exercise In cytoplasm, glycogen chains are attached to core protein **glycogenin**

Answer 21

Polysaccharide of glucose monomers responsible for rigidity of cell walls * linked together via **b-1,4 glycosidic bonds** rather than alpha anomer in starch and glycogen * Humans lack enzyme that can break this bond However, important component of dietary fiber which play role in nutrient absorption and gastric motility, elminated as waste

Answer 22

Structural support for shells or exoskeletons of insects, crustaceans, and mollusks as well as fungi cell walls Makes up bacterial cell wall

Answer 23

Either **furanose:** 5 carbon rings or **pyranose:** 6 carbon rings Anomeric carbon functional group changes from aldehyde or ketone to hemiacetal or hemiketal * alcohol attacks carbonyl carbon Depending on which side the OH group attacks the anomeric carbon, either form **alpha anomer** or **beta anomer**

Answer 24

**Mutarotation:** Alpha and beta anomers can rapidly interconvert **Alpha anomer:** hydroxyl group points down **Beta anomer:** hydroxyl group points up Type of anomer formed affects the type of glycosidic bond that forms between sugars

Answer 25

Reverse of dehydration reaction in bond formation 1. OR group attached to both sugars is protonated by an acid, forming leaving group 2. Molecule of water attacks anomeric carbon in glycosidic bond kicking off protonated OR group 3. Newly added water molecule deprotonated to form OH group

Answer 26

Gives food its distinctive brown color when burned; occurs between 140 and 160 deg C * Amino acids in foods react with certain carbohydrates * happens faster under basic conditions, amino groups deprotonated * At very high temps, carcinogen **acrylamide** can form if the food is charged **Reducing sugars** act as reducing agents with amino acids * All monosaccharides * any sugar with free aldehyde and non-aldose sugars that can be converted to an aldose (fructose) * due to _keto-enol tautamerism_ * disaccharides and polysaccharides with free anomeric carbons Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Fe³⁺ detect reducing sugar presence in reactions

Answer 27

Diagnosis of diabetes; diabetics have abnormally high blood glucose from not producing enough insulin or cells not responding to it * excess glucose ends up in urine Fehlings test was also used for detection Silver ions used to oxidize an aldose (reducing sugar) which produces solid silver Similar reaction with Cu²⁺ instead; begins with bright blue color and turns into red

Answer 28

Isomers that _differ in the spatial arrangment_ of their atoms around a stereocenter **Chiral center** is a stereocenter bound to 4 different substituents * **enantiomers:** a molecule with a single chiral center is asymmetrical, non-suuperimposable on its mirror image \*\* Number of possible stereoisomers doubles with each stereocenter

Answer 29

Ability of an object to be placed over another object Achiral molecules or meso compounds (multiple chiral centers that form a plane of symmetry

Answer 30

1 to 5 Chirality of each carbon is important because it changes biological function and glycosidic bonds capable of forming

Answer 31

Differ at one or more stereocenter/chiral center, but not all of them (then they'd be enantiomers)

Answer 32

Classifies compounds based on how they rotate plane-polarized light in a device called polarimeter (has to be determined experimentally) * Chiral molecule either rotates light CW or CCL * _different from uppercase D/L_ **d-compound(+)** rotates light clockwise **l-compound(-)** rotates light CCW

Answer 33

Go-to system for describing compounds with 1 or two stereocenters **R = clockwise** **S = CCW** **Priority Rules:** 1. Identify stereocenters 2. Assign priority of groups by _higher atomic number, then mass, then # of bonds_ 3. Lowest priority group points away (dashed line) 4. Assign R/S designation One non-superimposable mirror image will be R and the other will be S

Answer 34

Based on the fischer projection of glyceraldehyde (3-carbon aldose) which has one stereocenter * enantiomers have one with hydroxyl group pointing right, one with hydroxyl group pointing left * Hydroxyl group pointing **right** is D-isomer \*\* For compounds with **more than one stereocenter,** look at OH group on the _highest numbered Carbon_ * If pointing to the right, **D** * if left, **L** **\*\***Only D-isomers in biological processes

Answer 35

No, _only D sugars are used in biological process_

Answer 36

Stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images * configuration is opposite at each stereocenter

Answer 37

Type of diastereomer that differ at ONLY one stereocenter 1 epimer for every chiral center

Answer 38

16 stereoisomers * 2 enantiomers * 14 diastereomers * 4 epimers

Answer 39

3D structures that can be rearranged without breaking bonds _Pyranoses:_ Most stable are **chair and boat,** whichever form is less directly hindered predominates _Furanoses:_ Most stable are **envelope**

Answer 40

1. Prevent foreign pathogens from entering the body * through physical barriers (skin), antimicrobial enzymes, and immune cells 2. Destroy any pathogen that manages to slip through * as well as damaged or infected host cells * because of its ability to attack host cells, one of the most powerful organ systems; dysfunction can damage/destroy healthy tissue

Answer 41

**Antibodies:** Y shaped protein structures produced by _B cells_ of the immune system * track down and bind to pathogens

Answer 42

3 regions: **1.** **Constant-** same across all antibodies **2. Variable**- differs in order to detect different types of **antigens (foreign molecules)** **3. Hypervariable-** also differs; contains **antigen binding site** that recognizes and binds a _singular_ antigen * one to one specificity of antibody to antigen

Answer 43

**Antigen binding site:** undergoes extensive genetic recombination in B cells to create diversity to detect infinite range of antigens * located in antibody _hypervariable_ zone Antigen-antibody binding marks the pathogen, makes it harder to infect host cells, makes pathogen easier to find and destroy Antibodies distinguish "self" proteins from "non-self" proteins

Answer 44

Any recognizable component of a pathogen Epitope: site where an antigen is recognized by an antibody * specificity helps prevent immune system from targeting healthy tissues

Answer 45

Referred to as **white blood cells or leukocytes** * Produced in bone marrow and nucleated (UNLIKE more abundant red blood cells) **Neutrophils:** most abundant leukocyte (60%); track down pathogens like bacteria and destroy by _phagoctyosis_ (classified as **phagocytes)** **Lymphocytes:** 30% of white blood cells; **T cells and B cells (**B cells produce antibodies), as well as **natural killer cells** which target and destroy infected host cells **Monocytes:** 5% of leukocytes; largest by size, \*\*_differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells_ * **macrophages:** phagocyte; dispose of cellular debris and non-cellular foreign material * non-specific phagocytes that engulf and digest almost anything, including cellular debris, tumor cells, foreign substances, and microbes. * **dendritic cells:** **Eosiniphils:** target parasistic infections **Basophils and mast cells:** inflammatory cells, release histamine as part of allergic response

Answer 46

30% of white blood cells; T cells and B cells (B cells produce antibodies), as well as natural killer cells which target and destroy infected host cells * **ADAPTIVE immune cells** * ****antigen specific- each T or B cell will only target a specific group of structurally similar antigens During maturation, undergo genetic recombination creating diverse set of cells

Answer 47

Eosinophils are a type of disease-fighting white blood cell. This condition most often indicates a parasitic infection, an allergic reaction or cancer

Answer 48

Inflammatory cells, release histamine as part of allergic response

Answer 49

Immune cells that contain cytoplasmic granules(small particles, usually for storage) rich in proteolytic enzymes * **Neutrophils-** neutral color * **Eosinophils-** acid-loving granules, stain red with acidic dyes * **Basophils and mast cells-** base loving dyes, stain blue with base loving dyes

Answer 50

Viscous tissue present in the interior of most of the larger bones in the body **Hematopoiesis:** production of red and white blood cells in bone marrow * hematopoietic stem cells can differentiate into T cells, B cells, neutrophils or other white blood cells * also produces red blood cells and megakaryocytes (precursor to platelets)

Answer 51

Leukemia and other cancers of the blood, comprimises the immune system because of bone marrows function Treatment involves radiation followed by infusion of new hematopoietic stem cells (bone marrow transplant) * shows promise in treatment of HIV and others as well * both known cases of curing HIV were transplans of bone marrow from healthy donor who had HIV immunity

Answer 52

Parts of spleen known as white pulp are rich in lymphocytes and important for B cell activation

Answer 53

Small organ in the chest where T cells mature (education)

Answer 54

System of vessels that helps transport fluid and immune cells throughout the body * As blood flows through capillary vessels, some of this fluid leads into the tissues and collects in **interstitial space** **Interstitial fluid** drains into lymphatic vessels in the form of **lymph:** * **lymph:** colorless, lipid-rich fluid that flows through lymphatic system * eventually is returned to venous circulation **lymph nodes:** pockets of lymphatic tissue that house high concentrations of T and B cells; swell during periods of infection, hundreds located throughout body Lymphatic system also connects thymus and spleen

Answer 55

1. Maintaining fluid balance 2. Collecting and returning interstitial fluid to circulation 3. Transporting cells and biomolecules within lymph (LIPIDS) 4. Producing lymphocytes

Answer 56

Any action of the immune system directed toward healthy host tissues * Antigen-antibody system to prevent wrongful attack Occurs when **immune response is** **_too strong_** ex. **Rheumatoid arthritis-** autoimmune disorder where immune system attacks joints causing systemic joint pain ex. **Allergic response-** immune system attacks harmless foreign body; can induce **anaphylactic shock** * might be caused by lack of exposure to antigens

Answer 57

chemicals your immune system makes. Histamines act like bouncers at a club. They help your body get rid of something that's bothering you -- in this case, an allergy trigger, or "allergen." Histamines start the process that hustles those allergens out of your body or off your skin. * Once released from its granules, histamine produces many varied effects within the body, including the contraction of smooth muscle tissues of the lungs, uterus, and stomach; the dilation of blood vessels, which increases permeability and lowers blood pressure; the stimulation of gastric acid secretion in the stomach; and the acceleration of heart rate. Histamine also serves as a neurotransmitter, carrying chemical messages between nerve cells. Also in many stinging animals venom

Answer 58

**Innate immune system (army)** and **adaptive immune system (spy)** * work separately and in tandem, like when **helper CD4 T cells** recruit neutrophils, macrophages and other innate immune cells

Answer 59

Broad, **non-specific** protection against microbes to prevent infections; acts very quickly! 1. Prevent pathogens from entering body and bloodstream 1. **Skin (epidermis)** 2. **Mouth** 3. Other major orifices: **nasal and ear, rectum, urethra rectum vagina****** 2. **Cellular response** 1. ****inflammation

Answer 60

Specific targets its weaponized against; LYMPHOCYTES (T and B cells) * antibodies Remembers pathogens!

Answer 61

**skin (epidermis)**- cells are packed very tightly, making it difficult for foreign bodies to slip through **Sweat** and shedding of skin naturally clears potential infectious pathogens

Answer 62

Saliva contains antimicrobial **lysosyme** which breaks down bacterial cell walls * pathogens that survive oral cavity are likely to be damaged/destroyed by acidic environment of stomach

Answer 63

It has a chance of being abosrbed in intestinal lining or will pass through and be excreted * even if bacteria attempt to colonize the intestines, growth is limited my healthy gut flora already present

Answer 64

Tympanic membrane

Answer 65

Mucous lined membranes

Answer 66

1. Most abundant leukocyte, _Neutrophil_ is first on the scene of an infection 1. follows a chemical trail of _chemotaxic signals_ where it begins phagocytizing invasive bacteria 2. Macrophages also phagocytize cellular debris

Answer 67

Necessary part of protecting and healing responses to injury and infection * immune response to presence of foreign pathogens **1. Calor**- heat **2. Dolor**- pain **3. Rubor-** redness **4. Tumor-** swelling

Answer 68

Vasodilation of blood vessels at sight of injury or infection --\> increased blood flow * allows immune cells to travel quickly

Answer 69

Immune response for viruses

Answer 70

Lymphocyte (adaptive immune system) that is matured in the **Thymus** ("T" cell) * produced during hematopoiesis in bone marrow * **ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS:** Divided into two classes depending on response to **Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)** on the surface of other cells 1. Most cells in body express **MHC-1 receptors** 1. ****when cell is damaged, displays antigen on MH1 receptor which is recognized by **CD8 T cells** who lyses it 2. **MHC-2 receptors** are only found on immune cells like macrophages and dendritic cells who phagocytize antigens and present antigens to T cells 1. antigen at MHC2 receptor interacts with **helper** **CD4 T cells,** which secretes **cytokines** that activate/recruit other innate immune cells

Answer 71

T-Cells must survive two phases which elimnate under or overreactive ones = **Positive Negative Selection** 1. T-cells that fail to respond to general antigens are eliminated by **positive selection** 2. T-cells that attack self proteins and are too reactive are elminated by **negative selection** Rheumatoid arthritis Crohns Disease Lupus Multiple sclerosis

Answer 72

It expresses viral antigens on _MH1 receptors_ so that **CD8 killer T cells can destroy them** and curtail infection Activate **helper CD4 cells** to mount appropriate response **Memory T cells** that remember antigen they were exposed to and mount a faster response next time

Answer 73

How we develop immunity. Come from used T cells that differentiate after doing their job Used to create vaccines

Answer 74

**B cells** are produced in the bone marrow and their primary function is to secrete _antibodies_, which bind to antigens and mark them for destruction * after production in bone marrow, migrate to secondary lymphatic organs like _lymph nodes and the spleen,_ where they can interact directly with **antigen presenting cells** **If B Cell** encounters antigen it has a receptor for, it either matures into a **plasma B cell** which produces antibodies or a **memory B cell**

Answer 75

T cells B cells, antibodies

Answer 76

1. Shape and structure 2. Motion 3. Cell division 4. Organelle and biomolecule transport

Answer 77

**1. Microfilaments** **2. Intermediate filaments** **3. Microtubules** Cell can add or remove protein subunits for each type of polymer to control filaments length or thickness

Answer 78

**Actin** * Essential to cellular motility and maintaining cells structure (more rigid) Also contribute to cytokinesis in cell division And interact with **myosin** for muscle contraction

Answer 79

**G-actin** because of their globular shape **F-actin polymer (filamentous actin)** * Typically, two strands of F-actin stuck together to form microfilament

Answer 80

Microfilaments are directional; * ATP bound actin monomer latches on to + end of elongating filament, which is hydrolyzed into ADP * Therefore + end is ATP heavy and - end is ADP heavy and shrinks * Caps can be placed at either end to stop this When both happen at the same time, it is **treadmilling** and is reason that _cytoskeleton has dynamic rapid growth and disassembly_ _\*\*_This also occurs for microtubules

Answer 81

Made up of different protein monomers; more stable and don't bind nucleotides like other two cytoskeleton fibers * alpha helical structure makes them more flexible Typically found in cytoplasm providing structural support * also adhere to other cells and position organelles ex. Keratin (hair and nails)

Answer 82

Structural support for cilia and eukaryotic flagella Chromosome separation during mitosis/meiosis Intracellular transport Function at **Microtubule Organizing Centers (MTOCs):** basal bodies in cilia and flagella and centrosomes

Answer 83

Monomer unit is actually a **Tubulin dimer,** composed of **alpha tubulin and beta tubulin** Like microfilaments, have _nucelotide binding sites,_ but instead are for **GTP and GDP** * Polymerization occurs when theres a high enough concentration of dimers to exceed threshold * depolymerization below this threshold

Answer 84

\*\*Attach to cytoskeletal filaments 1. **Kinesins** 2. **Dyneins** **3. Myosins**

Answer 85

Transport, motility, muscle contraction

Answer 86

**ATP-ases:** consumes energy from ATP hydrolysis to power movement * Travel along microtubules to transport cellular cargo * **Anterograde transport:** Move towards positive end of microtubule (towards periphery of the cell, away from center of cell) _4 subunits:_ * 2 are heavy chains, function like legs * Head groups = feet * Stalks between head groups and heavy chains * 2 heavy chains bind to two light chains which attach to cargo

Answer 87

ATP binds to a head group which locks it to microtubule and triggers conformational change, swinging second head group forward (toward positive + end) * Then ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP causing it to detach

Answer 88

Like Kinesins but move to (-) negative end of microtubules, towards cell center, also an ATP-ase * **Retrograde transport** **1. Axonemal-** only in cells with cilia or flagella, generate motion for these structures to move **2. Cytoplasmic-** transport cargo, organelle and vesicle components

Answer 89

Also an ATP-ase * used for _muscle contraction_ Composed of head, neck, and tail domains * **Head** domain binds actin and hydrolyzes ATP to power myosins movement * **Tail** binds to cargo and other myosin

Answer 90

Proteins on cell surface that glue cells together * Associate with cytoskeletal elements or * Anchor to eachother and extracellular matrix (network of proteins, sugars, other biomolecules **Cadherins, selectins, and integrins**

Answer 91

Function: mediate inflammatory response Found on immune cells, platelets, and endothelial cells lining blood vessels * They bind to leukocytes moving through bloodstream, slowing them down to allow them to work at infected area **heterophilic-** two pieces binding are different

Answer 92

Transmembrane proteins that bind to other **cadherins** for cell growth and development, cell adhesion * _contain calcium ions_, dependent on them for adhesion **Homophilic**

Answer 93

Adheres to extracellular matrix and is used for cell signaling, binding ligands and cations (receptors of other cells) * located on cell membrane INTEGRATES cell adhesion with cell signaling

Answer 94

**Anchoring junctions** **Gap junctions** **Tight junctions**

Answer 95

Connect cytoskeletons to each other or to extracellular matrix * help stabilize cells and tissues **Adherins junctions-** cadherin proteins interact with actin filaments **Desmosomes-** cadherin to intermediate filaments; located where withstanding force is necessary- heart, bladder, epithelial

Answer 96

Created by **connexin** proteins, link cytosol of neighboring cells * facilitates cell to cell communication Allows passage of amino acids, Ca, cAMP Found in most tissues but most relevant in tissues that require electric/chemical signaling * ex. cardiac muscles (cells can contract at same time)

Answer 97

Found in epithelial cells, link cells very closely and doesn't allow passage of macromolecules, only water and some ions * occludin and claudin proteins ex. **Blood brain barrier**

Answer 98

Y shaped immunoglobulins * glycoproteins made by B cells * Antibodies help neutralize foreign invaders like viruses and bacteria as well as threatening cells in the body Two heavy chains(longer), two light chains connected by disulfide bonds * constant, variable, hypervariable Can be secreted as dimers, tetramers, etc linked ny the STEM of their Y shape

Answer 99

**Isotypes**- different functions in immune response 1. **IgA-** blocks pathogen attachment in intestine, respiratory tract, saliva, genital tract 2. **IgD-** antigen receptors on surface of naive B cells 3. **IgE-** allergic and antiparasitic immunity (stimulates histamine) 4. **IgM-** early response 5. **IgG-** most common, in blood and extracellular fluid 1. eliminates bacteria and viruses

Answer 100

B cells can change production of one isotype to another, repurposing their antibodies * constant region changes but hypervariable (antigen binding site) stays the same

Answer 101

Utilizes carefully picked antibodies to detect a substance of interest

Answer 102

Kidneys, Ureters, Urethra, urinary bladder

Answer 103

Bean shaped organs near back of abdominal cavity * Renal arteries supply each kidney with blood which drains by renal veins Each kidney is protected by tough fibrous layer called **renal capsule** * inside, kidney itself consists of: * **Renal cortex:** outer region * **Renal medulla:** inner region The functional unit of the kidney is the **nephron,** which spans both regions * nephron consists of **renal copuscle and renal tubule**

Answer 104

* The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron, which spans both regions * _nephron consists of:_ * **renal copuscle:** flood is filtered into nephron, located in renal cortex (outer region of kidney) * **renal tubule: _filtrate_** travels through renal tubule until reaching collecting duct, then drains as _urine_ **Filtrate:** water and solutes which eventually become urine * Once urine drains from collecting duct, passes through **medullary pyramids** into **minor calyces** and then into **major calyces** * ****urine then drains from **renal pelvis** which becomes the **URETER** Each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons

Answer 105

Two tubes, one from each kidney, which brings urine from kidneys to **urinary bladder** that sits on pelvic floor * **urinary bladder** contracts to excrete urine through the **urethra**

Answer 106

**Internal and external urethral sphinctor** muscles * internal urethral sphincter controlled by _smooth muscle_ and the _autonomic NS_ External urethral sphincter is made up of skeletal muscle and is controlled consciously

Answer 107

**Glomerularis,** a tight bundle of capillaries * blood enters them from **afferent arterioles** BUT also exits from an **efferent** **arteriole** instead of a vein and **Bowmans capsule** which wraps around the glomerularis

Answer 108

(in corpuscle) Blood traveling through **glomerularis** is subject to hydrostatic pressure which causes some water and small particles to filter into **Bowmans capsule = filtrate** * **filtrate** consists of water, salts, vitamins, glucose and amino acids

Answer 109

Renal tubule has to adjust volume of filtrate, reabsorb valuable nutrients, expels waste **Proximal convoluted tubule-** reabsorbs valuable nutrients (glucose, free aminos, water soluble vitamins, sodium) * picked up by blood capillaries **Loop of Henle-** has a descending and ascending limb; allows for retention of large amounts of water and solutes * reduces volume of urine without reducing concentration **Distal convulated tubule**

Answer 110

Reabsorption of all glucose * glucose concentration in blood is a sign of disease like diabetes; too much blood sugar to be reabsorbed

Answer 111

Concentration of sodium increases as you go deeper into renal medulla Loop of Henle- has a descending and ascending limb; allows for retention of large amounts of water and solutes * reduces volume of urine without reducing concentration **Descending limb:** permeable to only water and not ions; as it goes into higher sodium concentration, water drains out of the loop of henle reducing its volume * water is picked up by **vasa recta** blood vessels and returned to circulation **Ascending limb:** permeable to ions but not water; Na and K ions flow out and are picked up by **vasa recta** * at bottom of ascending limb its thin and allows for _passive transport_ * at the top, its thicker and needs _active transport_ Blood in vasa recta runs opposite direction as loop of henle

Answer 112

1. Blood pressure 2. Osmoregulation 3. Acid base balance 4. Nitrogenous waste

Answer 113

Blood pressure regulated by cross sectional area of vessels, vasodilation, and also by _fluid volume_ which can vary dramatically * when someone is dehydrated, blood volume and pressure is low **Aldosterone:** increases sodium reabsorption and therefore water reabsorption, increasing blood pressure **Angiotensin II:** increases BP and stimulates aldosterone release **Antidiuretic Hormone:** increases blood volume and pressure **\*\*Atrial natriuretic peptide:** decreases blood volume and pressure

Answer 114

DCT and collecting duct are acted upon by hormones: * **Aldosterone-** stimulate sodium reabsorption * **Antidiuretic hormone (Vasopressin)-** promotes water reabsorption **DCT:** sodium, Ca, Cl, H ions reabsorbed and K, H can be secreted * aldosterone promotes sodium and therefore water reabsorption here * can also be acted on **parathyroid hormone,** which stimulates calcium reabsorption **Collecting duct:** ADH acts to promote water reabsorption

Answer 115

Increases sodium reabsorption, promoting water reabsorption, increases plasma volume and pressure Regulated by **reinin-a****ngiotensin-aldosterone axis** 1. juxtaglomerular cells stimulated by low blood pressure, low sodium, or sympathetic NS input to release enzyme called **renin** in kidneys 2. Renin acts on **angiotensinogen** to make **angiotensin I** 3. **ACE enzyme** converts angiotensin I to **angiotensin II**, which triggers release of aldosterone from **adrenal cortex** 1. also stimulates vasoconstriction

Answer 116

Promotes water retention by increasing water reabsorption in collecting duct of kidneys * promotion of aquaporins in collecting duct cells Vasoconstriction, increases blood pressure and volume HOWEVER, reduces osmolarity of blood (no effect on solute)

Answer 117

Hormone secreted by the heart to decrease blood pressure * sodium retention in the nephron

Answer 118

pH must be kept between 7.35 and 7.45 Blood pH is usually decreased by lactic acid and CO2 levels (bicarbonate buffer) \*\* excreting more protons in urine can also decrease aciditiy, inhibiting this can do the opposite * done by **Sodium-Proton exchangers**

Answer 119

**Urea** is removed via excretory system * urea is carbonyl containing 2 amine groups * ammonia is a biproduct * in excessive levels, becomes toxic to the body Liver converts ammonia to urea which is secreted through nephron for excretion

Answer 120

For most substances, the liquid becomes more dense as the average kinetic energy (temperature) decreases, and the solid is more dense than the liquid due to close-packing solid-state structures, resulting in the formation of the solid at the bottom of the liquid. However, as stated in the question, solid water (ice) is significantly less dense than the liquid form at 0°C (the melting/freezing point). Remember, the water molecule is bent (shown below), with a bond angle of approximately 104.5°. This, combined with the degree of hydrogen bonding that can occur between water molecules, yields a solid crystalline structure with relatively large amounts of empty space. As a result, solid water is less dense than its liquid form.

Answer 121

Derivatives of ammonia (NH3) * when uncharged has a lone pair of electrons WEAK BASES

Answer 122

When highest priority functional group, name ends with amine * when anoother higher priority functional group, denoted by -amino Primary amines have one alkyl group, secondary have two, and tertiary have 3

Answer 123

Cyclic amines, some with two rings

Answer 124

Primary because more hydrogen bonding * however H-bonding in amines isn't as strong as alcohols or carboxylic acids due to electronegativity

Answer 125

Aryl amines have aromatic substituent * less basic than alkyl amines due to lone pair resonance

Answer 126

Carbon nitrogen double bond

Answer 127

Hybrid of two functional groups: alkenes and amines ENamine

Answer 128

Tautomers, can easily interconvert under acidic or basic conditions

Answer 129

Carboxylic acid derivatives, Nitrogen bound to carbonyl group Extremely weak bases due to carbonyl withdrawing; considered neutral (amino acids)

Answer 130

Created by thiols

Answer 131

Compounds with S-H group * polar but capable of only weak hydrogen bonding * much lower BP than alcohol However, more ACIDIC than alcohols (still weak acids)

Answer 132

Sulfur and two R groups; tend to act as bases * methionine * biotin

Answer 133

Carboxylic acid + thiol * derivatives of Coenzyme A = **acetyl CoA (**key intermediate in aerobic respiration and fat metabolism)

Answer 134

Two bonded sulfur atoms which are also bonded to an alkyl group RSSR - Important aspect of tertiary structure of proteins Like peroxides, which have oxygen instead of sulfur (ROOR) stabilize the tertiary and/or quaternary structures of proteins

Answer 135

Energy storage, structural support to cell membranes, chemical messengers * **Fatty acids** and derivatives * **Cholesterol** and derivatives * **Eicosanoids** * **Terpenes** and **terpenoids**

Answer 136

Lipid with acidic functional group (carboxylic acid attached to linear hydrocarbon chain) * Fatty acid derivatives: * **triglycerides** * **phospholipids** * **sphingolipids** Fatty acids are commonly stored as **TRIGLYCERIDES**

Answer 137

Carboxylic acid Hydrocarbon chain

Answer 138

3 fatty acid chains, esters, glycerol * typically what we consider fats in our food Stored in **adipocytes** as energy reserves

Answer 139

Esters are carboxylic acid derivatives that can be split into components via nucleophilic reaction * When this happens to **triglycerides,** its called **saponification (soap making)** **Done** by mixing fat with a strong base, cleaves the triglycerides making glycerol and fatty acid salt * Cation and carboxylate anion and fatty acid tail is excellent for solubilizing hydrophobic dirt/grime

Answer 140

Fatty acid residue bonded to sphingosine amine group Tendency to cluster in lipid rafts within plasma membrane; biosignaling

Answer 141

Composed of a mixture of lipids * produced by plants and animals * solid but malleable at room temp

Answer 142

Component of cell membranes (maintains fluidity), orchestrates secondary sex characteristics through steroid hormones, and regulating calcium metabolism 4 FUSED RINGS * precursor for _steroid hormones_ * __**aldosterone** * **estradiol** * **vitamin D-** regulating calcium metabolism

Answer 143

Signaling lipids --\> allergic response, pain perception, blood pressure regulation * **Prostaglandins:** synthesized from **arachidonic acid** * mediate pain and inflammatory responses * **Thromboxanes:** found in platelets, facilitate blood clotting

Answer 144

Terpenes = class of hydrocarbons made from **isoprene (**5 carbon unit w/ 2 double bonds) * **terpanoid:** terpene with additional functional groups **Vitamin A (retinol) is a** terpanoid

Answer 145

A, D, E, K Vitamin A = terpanoid Vitamin D = cholesterol derivative

Answer 146

**Saturated fatty acids** have no double bonds * saturated with hydrogen bonds Unsaturated have at least one double bond

Answer 147

Numbering chain starts with carbonyl carbon, any double bonds are named by the lower number * **Z = cis** * **E = trans**

Answer 148

Only gives total number of carbons and double bonds ex. 16:1 Fatty Acid

Answer 149

Numbers carbon chain from hydrocarbon chain first * opposite of IUPAC

Answer 150

Used to identify position of double bounds in fatty acid chain * same as IUPAC; starts counting at carbonyl

Answer 151

Usually have a cis bend that creates a kink in the hydrocarbon chain, causing loose packing * LOW melting and boiling points Sometimes liquid at room temp **Trans fatty acids:** contain trans double bonds, more stackable than cis * more likely to be solid at room temp * Additive to food, greatly elevate risk of heart disease * \*increases LDL:HDL ratio

Answer 152

Tight packing, high melting point, solid at room temp

Answer 153

**Lipoproteins:** vehicles for lipid transport 1. lipids absorbed by brush border in small intestine 2. Packaged into **chylomicrons-** lipoproteins composed of _triglycerides_ * also contain _apolipoproteins:_ amphipathic proteins that can bund lipids while interactring with polar solvents

Answer 154

They are released into **lacteals,** small vessels that drain into lymphatic system * from here, deliver fatty acids to adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle After delivering lipid cargo, chylomicrons are repurposed in the liver

Answer 155

Identified based on density (LEAST dense has HIGHEST ratio of lipid to protein): **VLDL (very low density lipoproteins):** very rich in triglycerides, delivers them to body tissues

Answer 156

very rich in triglycerides, delivers them to body tissues * triglycerides come from fatty acids synthesized in the liver and chylomicron leftovers Circulates bloodstream releasing TGC's, is **converted to LDL**

Answer 157

VLDL is converted to IDL in the bloodstream after dropping off TGC's * some IDL particles return to liver, others become **converted to LDL**

Answer 158

* converted from IDL after dropping off more TGC in bloodstream Contains **more cholesterol** than triglycerides * \*\*main function is to deliver cholesterol High LDL = increased cardiovascular risk, contributes to formation of atherosclerotic plaques

Answer 159

Picks up stray cholesterol and other lipids and brings them back to the liver * Cholesterol transporter High HDL = good cardiovascular health, decreased risk of atherosclerosis, unhealthy narrowing of blood vessels from plaque buildup

Answer 160

Hormones epinephrine and glucagon tell adipocytes to release fatty acids * active the enzyme **hormone sensitive lypase,** which hydrolyzes triglycerides Free fatty acids released into bloodstream and are transported to target tissues by **blood protein _albumin_**

Answer 161

Lipolysis and beta-oxidation

Answer 162

Fatty acid molecules are mobilized from storage and moved to bloodstream to be picked up by cells that need energy * Triglycerides mobilized from **adipose tissue** made up of **adipocytes** * hydrolyzed into glycerol and fatty acid chain components Carried by **albumin**

Answer 163

Fatty acids are oxidized to produce intermediate molecules which produce energy * \*\* After **lipolysis**, free fatty acids enter cells from bloodstream and are shipped into mitochondria Broken into **Acetyl CoA's (2 carbon molecule)(**much more than made by pyruvate decarboxylation) * can be fed into CAC to generate ATP via aerobic respiration

Answer 164

Moved from cytosol into mitochondrial matrix by adding a molecule of **Coenzyme A**, creating **Acyl CoA** * fatty acid can't enter mito without it Short fatty acid chains can diffuse into matrix, longer chains have to use **carnitine shuttle (reference picture)** * serves as a control point for regulating fat metabolism * only active when cell needs fat for energy

Answer 165

1. Goal is to get 2-carbon acetyl CoA; each round liberates 2 carbons from **polar head of fatty acid** * Each round takes place in 4 steps: * **Oxidation** * **Hydration** * **Oxidation** * **Thiolysis (cleavage)**

Answer 166

**Acyl CoA Dehydrogenase** creates double bond between beta and alpha carbons adjacent the carbonyl Produces 1 FADH₂and **trans-∆²-enoyl-CoA**

Answer 167

Product of 1st oxidation has addition of hydroxyl group to **beta carbon** which used to be part of double bond created in first step * double carbon bond is used to add oxygen

Answer 168

The hydoxyl added in step 2 is oxidized further into a carbonyl group * **creates one NADH from NAD+** Creates Keto

Answer 169

FRESH molecule of **COENZYME A** cleaves the fatty acid into molecule of **Acetyl CoA** and new fatty acid that is two carbons shorter

Answer 170

Beta-oxidation proceeds normally until it meets double bond * **Odd numbered double bonds** dealt with by enzyme **enoyl-CoA isomerase** * ****moves double bond to an even number * fatty acid becomes another **trans-∆²-enoyl-CoA** and can proceed with second step of beta O (hydration)

Answer 171

**Even numbered double bond:** 1. Beta oxidation proceeds until double bond is on carbon 4, then acyl-CoA dehydrogenase creates another double bond in between it and the carbonyl 2. **Enzyme 2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase** couples oxidation step with reduction of NADPH to NADP+ that produces a double bond at position 3 3. **Enoyl-CoA isomerase** moves double bond between alpha and beta carbons Beta oxidation can proceed normally

Answer 172

Process halts with 5 carbons remaining: creates 1 acteyl CoA and 1 **propionyl CoA** **Propionyl CoA** can be turned into Succinyl CoA and enter citric acid cycle

Answer 173

Each round produces 1 FADH2, 1 NADH, 1 acetyl CoA (final step produces 2 acetyl CoA or 1 and 1 propionyl CoA) About 14 ATP per 1 round (multiple rounds for a fatty acid chains) * **7n ATP per "n" carbon in chain**

Answer 174

Ketone bodies, small 3 or 4 carbon molecules soluble in the bloodstream which can be sent to tissues during periods of fasting (glucose used up) _3 main ketone bodies:_ 1. **acetoacetate - one to know** 2. acetone 3. D-B-hydroxybutyrate

Answer 175

Caused by excess of **acetoacetate and D-B-hydroxybutyrate** in bloodstream (created by liver via ketogenesis) * lowered blood pH * common in diabetics

Answer 176

Require more oxidation (glucose is already more oxidized) Carbohydrates better for quick energy

Answer 177

Stores energy in adipose tissue Insulates body Generates body heat (brown fat)

Answer 178

Occurs in the cytosol 1. Acetyl CoA is activated to **malonyl CoA (**addition of carboxyl group) 2. An acetyl CoA group and malonyl CoA group are "loaded" onto **ACP** of **fatty acid synthase**

Answer 179

Multiple reactions that produce **fatty acyl** still bonded to **ACP** of fatty acid synthase * requires NADPH from Pentose Phosphate Pathway Acyl carrier protein (ACP) transports the growing fatty acid chain between enzyme domains of fatty acid synthase (FAS) during biosynthesis Repeated many times, each time added two carbons to chain until it yields **16 carbon fatty acid _Palmitic Acid_** * then, released from ACP site

Answer 180

16 carbon Palmitic acid

Answer 181

**Sterol-** type of lipid that helps maintain cell structure and fluidity and \*\*precursor of steroid hormones Similar to fatty acid- starts in cytosol and uses acteyl CoA as precursor 1. **Continues in endoplasmic reticulum (ER)** 1. 3 acetyl CoA's condense to form 6-carbon **mevalonate** 2. uses 2 NADPH, rate-limiting step

Answer 182

3 molecules of ATP used to transform _mevalonate_ into two activated isoprene molecules * 6 isoprene molecules condense to form **squalene** which goes on to form cholesterol Cholesterol from liver delivered via bloodstream to tissues within LDL lipoproteins

Answer 183

Fatty acids and **diacylglycerols (DAG)**

Answer 184

Behavior explained by inherent disposition in character ex. brandon acted that way because he's a stellar human being * can be positive or negative

Answer 185

Behavior explained by external factors or circumstances ex. the customer was rude because he was having a bad day

Answer 186

Decide whether someone is behaving that way dispositionally or situationally Cues that focus on individuals' behavior over time\ Cues that focus on individuals' unique behavior in similar situations Cues that focus on individuals behavior in relation to societal expectations

Answer 187

Attributing negative behavior as dispositional for others but situational for oneself * more aware of ones situation than anothers * more readily label others negatively

Answer 188

Attributing negative behavior of others to their disposition rather than situation * different from actor observer bias because doesn't mention oneself

Answer 189

More likely to make dispositional attributions of our own positive behavior and situational attributions to our negative behavior

Answer 190

**internal locus of control:** degree to which people believe they do have control over the outcomes of events in their lives **external locus of control:** degree to which people believe they don't have control of outcomes of events

Answer 191

Tendency for an impression in one area to influence the opinion of another part of why people dress up for interviews

Answer 192

The assumption that a persons actions inherently bring morally fair and fitting consequences ex. good things happen to good people

Answer 193

situational attributions dispositional attributions

Answer 194

Irrational attitudes (positive or negative) towards various groups or even objects * affective/emotional response, not thought out like a stereotype an assumption or an opinion about someone simply based on that person's membership to a particular group

Answer 195

Contentful- what we assume about people * Cognitive- as opposed to prejudice which is emotion-based a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing.

Answer 196

Requires action, someone treated differently based on prejudices regarding membership in a group * almost always negative * few, if any, limits on what the actions are * communication, making opportunity available Has to involve actions or outcomes

Answer 197

Individual: ways in which a single person can treat other people differently based on group membership Institutional: larger patterns of unequal behavior or outcomes, as mediated by entire institutions * racial segregation * job applications * education gaps * health care

Answer 198

Race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age

Answer 199

Occurs when self-perceptions (often influenced by external factors) cause specific behaviors * people can pick up on stereotypes that apply to them and act accordingly

Answer 200

Occurs when members of a social group are or feel at risk of conforming to stereotypes of their group * even being reminded of someones stereotypes can affect performance

Answer 201

Occurs when members of a social group are or feel empowered by stereotypes of their group

Answer 202

Strong societal disapproval of groups, identities, or behaviors

Answer 203

**Ethnocentrism:** Evaltuation of other cultures according to preconceptions of ones own culture **Cultural Relativism:** belief that a person's practices and values should be evaluated based on their culture, rather than anothers * Put in mental effort to understand ritual/behavior

Answer 204

Field of sociology dealing with categories we use to describe people Age, gender, ethnicity, race, immigration status, sexual orientation

Answer 205

Associated with broad range of physical and psychological changes * different stages of life associated with different societal roles **Elderly:** some cultures view them as highly respected community members; continue to live with extended families as long as possible * in america, elderly people encouraged to live with other elderly people

Answer 206

Categorizing age by cohorts

Answer 207

* Sex is biological, male or female * Gender is a social construct; gender roles vary across societies, change over time **Gender schema:** what we consider to constitute maleness and femaleness * ideas about gender that may lie at the root of a gender script **Gender scripts:** more concrete, refer to specific expectations about how an individual of a given gender is expected to act in a given situation

Answer 208

Social insitutions where people are separated by gender

Answer 209

Who people are attracted to * homosexuality, heterosexuality, bisexuality

Answer 210

Human categorization based on physical characteristics associated with certain populations _Official US categories:_ * white american * black/african american * native american * alaska native * asian american * native hawaiian

Answer 211

When racial identity is imposed on a person Processes of racialization are deployed by power structures in society to advance political or social goals

Answer 212

Refers to someones cultural background * language is associated

Answer 213

Not a yes/no category; someone can be a: * resident * visa holder- time limits, occupational restrictions * permanent resident- can't vote but few restrictions * undocumented immigrant Perceptions of immigration linked to perceptions of race/ethnicity Emigration- migration out of a country

Answer 214

First researcher to think about population changes, didn't think large population would be sustainable

Answer 215

**Stage 1:** death rate and birth rate are high; stable or slow increase **Stage 2:** birth rate remains high, death rate falls rapidly * very rapid increase in pop **Stage 3:** death rate still decreasing, birth rate falling * increases in pop slow down **Stage 4:** both slow, growth is stable Possible stage 5, decreasing population and increasing age

Answer 216

Visualize balance of age and gender groups in society Dependency ratio = [(# of ppl 0-14)+(# of ppl 65+)] / (# of ppl 15-64) * Rough estimate of number of people workforce must support

Answer 217

= (births or deathers per year)/ population x 1000 * births/deaths per 1000 people

Answer 218

Lifetime births / woman

Answer 219

1929-1939; serious deprivation and poverty, lasting impact on generational cohorts

Answer 220

Periods of heavy and light migration in the US * very common in late 1800s early 1900s * 1920s had laws put in places, reformed in 1960s which led to more immigration again **Push Factors:** poverty, war, violence **Pull Factors:** economic prosperity, social stability

Answer 221

Ever-closer economic and cultural linkages * due to technical advances, communication technology makes intercontinental coordination and cultural diffusion possible Could have negative impacts on viability of smaller cultures and languages, possibly civil unrest and terrorism

Answer 222

Divides world into core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral nations based on place they occupy in global economy * **core** nations specialize in higher skill labor, capital investment * **peripheral-** lower skill production that is labor intensive

Answer 223

1st stages driven by industrial revolution, dramatic transformation in manufacturing technologies in late 1700s to mid 1800s in England and the US * associated with dramatic growth of urban centers Suburbanization: large amounts of lower-density housing built outside of cities * wealthy families moved out of cities due to single family housing, large backyards, easy commute to city and away from crime * led to **urban decay**

Answer 224

Reversal of trends of suburbanization and urban decay, well off families moving back to cities -- **urban renewal** **Gentrification:** displacement of lower income working class communities from neighborhoods with deep roots * local gov't tax base increases but existing residents at high risk for displacement

Answer 225

**Proactive:** seek to make a certain change happen **Reactive:** seek to prevent change * letter writing campaigns, protests, direct action **Relative reprivation:** person or group lacks certain resources in comparison to other groups in society * relative poverty vs. absolute poverty

Answer 226

Characterized by similar economic situations, access to opportunities, cultural attitudes * **Upper-** wealthy and powerful * **Middle-** * **upper middle-** usually work for a salary, earn enough to live comfortable life with luxuries * **middle middle** * **lower middle-** work lower salary jobs or well paying hourly, more vulnerable to hardship * **Lower (working class)-** work low paying, hourly jobs. economic insecurity, limited access to opportunities Not the only way societies can be stratified Can also differ by how changeable statuses are over time

Answer 227

Mutiple protein subunits/polypeptides * held together by same interactions that maintain tertiary structure (H-bonds, salt bridges, disulfide bonds) Homo = identical subunits Hetero= nonidentical ex. heterotrimer, homotetramer

Answer 228

spontaneous and thermodynamically favorable

Answer 229

Biological catalysts that speed up reactions necessary for life by reducing the activation energy * sensitive to temp and pH * specific to reactions Don't change or get consumed, don't affect K_eqof rxn or other thermodynamic parameters (∆G, ∆H, ∆S, spontaneity) * also speeds up reverse reaction

Answer 230

Substance an enzyme acts on

Answer 231

**Catalytic site:** where reaction is catalyzed **Binding site:** large area where substrate interacts with enzyme by intermolecular interactions (H-bond, dipole-dipole, london disperson) * positions substrate properly relative to catalytic site

Answer 232

Fit together with no change in tertiary, quaternary structure * oversimplification

Answer 233

More realistic than "lock and key", enzyme and substrate induce conformational shifts, closer binding

Answer 234

Regulatory molecules and substrates * any substance an enzyme interacts with

Answer 235

Interacts with enzyme at active site

Answer 236

"allo" means different * Interact at other site on enzyme

Answer 237

All enzymes end in **-ase** * **Oxidoreductases** catalyze oxidation reduction reactions * **Transferases:** transfer a functional group b/w molecules * **Hydrolases:** catalyze hydrolysis * **Isomerases:** catalyze isomerization * **Lyases-** cleave bonds not using hydrolysis (ex. glycolysis) * **Ligases-** Join molecules with covalent bonds

Answer 238

catalyze oxidation reduction reactions

Answer 239

transfer a functional group b/w molecules

Answer 240

catalyze hydrolysis

Answer 241

catalyze isomerization

Answer 242

cleave bonds not using hydrolysis (ex. glycolysis)

Answer 243

an enzyme that uses ATP to form bonds * ex. DNA ligase

Answer 244

Catalyzes ethanol to acetaldehyde, ethanol metabolism \*\* Alcohol is substrate, dehydrogenase is action (oxidoreductase) Breaks down lactose through hydrolysis

Answer 245

Removes phosphate group from substrate

Answer 246

Adds phosphate group through phosphorylation

Answer 247

Happens at the right rate, amount and time

Answer 248

Downstream product of a pathway reaches backwards to regulate upstream paths

Answer 249

Downstream product makes previous step less likely or efficient * downregulation ex. Body temp regulation Glycolysis committed rate limiting step: PFK-1 catalyzes addition of phosphate group (regulated by product, ATP)

Answer 250

Oxytocin stimulating uterine contractions which releases more oxytocin, ends with birth Blood clot formation requires positive and negative feedback

Answer 251

Upstream product in higher concentration catalyzes downstream reaction ex. In glycolysis, pyruvate kinase catalyzes ATP producing rxn, enzyme activated by intermediate fructase 1,6-bisphosphate upstream

Answer 252

Enzymes can have multiple active sites for the same ligand, binding at one active site can make it easier to bind at another * \> 1 is positive cooperativity * 0 is none * \< 1 is negative cooperativity

Answer 253

Transports metalloprotein which transports oxygen throughout the body * Has 4 subunits which _each can bind one oxygen_ molecule * Uses **cooperativity,** easier to bind the next oxygen

Answer 254

1. Oxygen in the environment 2. Ease of contact with O2 and hemoglobin binding sites

Answer 255

phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, nitrosylation, methylation, acetylation, lipidation and proteolysis Enzyme-substrate interactions are non-covalent (uses polarity/sterics)

Answer 256

non-covalent (use polarity of sterics)

Answer 257

Attaching a phosphate group to a compound (ENZYME): affects its activity (activated or deactivated) * most commonly targets serine residues as well as threonine and tyrosine * side chains have OH groups a phosphate can attach to Reversible

Answer 258

Often times, used for **zymogens:** inactive precursor for enzymes ex. **Trypsinogen** released from pancreas is cleaved into active **trypsin;** if active enzyme was in pancreas it'd digest itself

Answer 259

Cofactors/Coenzymes

Answer 260

Inorganic (Mg, Cu, Zn) or organic (coenzymes) * Required for normal function

Answer 261

Often vitamins or vitamin derivatives Often contribute to function of enzymes by carrying functional groups from one place to another in a reaction * ex. Coenzyme A (CoA) transfers acyl groups

Answer 262

Coenzymes tightly or covalently bonded to their enzymes * ex. Heme attached to O₂ transporters like hemoglobin or myoglobin

Answer 263

Enzyme together with what it needs to be functional (coenzymes, cofactor)

Answer 264

Enzymes without cofactors needed to function properly

Answer 265

100 molcules of enzyme X in a test tubel enzyme X catalyzes conversion of S --\> P * **Vmax: MAX RATE,** saturated, all molcules of X occupied * * **Km:** conc of substrate (S) at HALF of Vmax * how readily enzyme reacts w/ substrate V = **Vmax [S] / K_m + [S]**

Answer 266

Concentration of substrate that corresponds to half of Vmax * High Km= enzyme has low affinity for substrate The less substrate they need to reach half of their maximum speed, the more efficient they are. So if the Km is low, you have a really efficient enzyme. If the Km is high, the enzyme is much less efficient.

Answer 267

Double reciprocal transformation of Michaelis Menten plots to make estimating Vmax and Km more precise

Answer 268

Compete with substrate for the active site * _Don't affect Vmax_ because they can be outcompeted by adding substrate * effect can become negligible * _DO affect Km_ because they can be overcome with extra substrate * more substrate to reach Vmax * **increases** Km

Answer 269

Interacts with enzyme allosterically (not at active site), can interact with enzyme regardless if bound to substrate * prevent enzyme from working similar to reducing amount of enzyme present **reduces Vmax** **Km stays same**

Answer 270

Prevent enzyme from converting substrate to product * Allosteric * Prevent enzyme from letting go of substrate Reduce rate of catalyzed rxn, **Vmax decreased** **Km decreased,** enzyme has greater affinity for substrate

Answer 271

Can bind to free enzyme (no substrate bound) of enzyme-substrate complex * Decreases Vmax Km depends on binding preference, increases when bound to free enzyme

Answer 272

Nucleotide minus phosphate group

Answer 273

Phosphate group, like ATP

Answer 274

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate - chemical signalling molecule

Answer 275

One ring, cytosine and thymine and uracil CUT the Py

Answer 276

Two rings, adenine and guanine Shorter word, more rings

Answer 277

Status is generally inherited * Characteristic of south Asian societies, some central European

Answer 278

Class isn't all about money **Social capital:** the "wealth" someone has through their social network and contacts **Cultural capital:** traits that signal membership in a higher class * includes attire, belief, customs

Answer 279

Identifying as a member of one's economic class * advocating for the rights/interests of that class Focusing on other parts of identity, while not identifying with their own class * buying into incorrect ideas about social class or mobility

Answer 280

**Power-** ability to get things done; controlling resources and influencing others action **Prestige-** certain things are associated with a higher level of society **Privilege-** favorable assumptions due to features beyond ones control * ex. racial privilege with police **Intersectionality-** experience of combined social stratification, often not equal to the sum of their parts * social experience of a black woman isn't that of a black person + a woman

Answer 281

**Absolute poverty-** when someone is not able to obtain the basic necessities of life * income threshold depends on place * material conditions of absolute poverty are universal **Relative poverty-** poverty relative to other members of one's community * We compare ourselves to people in our reference groups

Answer 282

**Marginal poverty-** wealth inequality caused by the lack of stable employment **Structural Poverty-** wealth inequality influenced by the way society is structured

Answer 283

Experiences of poor people not well recognized by mainstream society * less access to resources, opportunities, rights Results in isolation, contributes to persistence of poverty

Answer 284

**Residential segregation:** people of certain demographics cluster together * caused by: * legal and quasi-legal regulations * discriminatory lending practices People also choose to live by people like them * Disparities in qualities of public schools * Differences in safety and violence across neighborhoods Environmental risk factors for diseases not distributed equally

Answer 285

The structures and patterns of society that cause inequalities to become passed down from one generation to the next - inequality over time!!

Answer 286

Life expectancy, income, safe water, healthcare, education Measuring the extent to which wealth is concentrated among a few people within a society

Answer 287

**Prevalence:** a snapshot of how common a given condition is in a population **Incidence:** how many new cases occur among an at-risk population over a certain amount of time

Answer 288

Poorer people have worse health and access to quality health care * affordable care act (obamacare) and medicaid attempt to rectify these inequalities Lack of access, lack of quality of care, lack of access to healthy food, exposure to environmental risk factors

Answer 289

Variation by race in where melanoma develops Race/ethnicity contribute to broad health trends * asians have best health * African-american and native american have worst

Answer 290

Women tend to live longer than men (in affluent, industrialized societies) * estrogen levels reduce cardiovascular disease * unequal distribution of risk factors (men smoke, drink more) *

Answer 291

Providers need to be aware of patients specific needs

Answer 292

**Intergenerational:** Changes in social status across generations **Intragenerational mobility:** Takes place within one generation

Answer 293

**Horizontal:** switching roles within a single class * ex. electrician to carpenter **Vertical:** moving to a higher or lower stratum of socioeconomic heirarchy * **exchange mobility:** when someone moves up socioeconomic ladder, someone else moves down * **structural mobility:** dramatic changes to society can either enrich or impoverish many people at once (Great Depression)

Answer 294

More capable people are able to experience more success * unequal outcomes based on equal opportunities * same access to prove capabilities

Answer 295

Vibrations of molecules that travel as pressure waves through a medium * displacement of molecules due to longitudinal (compression) waves We perceive sound due to vibrations of air molecules detected by bones in ear and turned into action potentials

Answer 296

**Speed-** most strongly affected by medium through which it travels ## Footnote **Amplitude-** **Frequency-**

Answer 297

affected by medium through which it travels, **fastest through incompressible** material * fastest through solids, slowest through gases Also affected by density of medium: **more dense = slower** **bulk modulus (B):** a material's resistance to compression V = √(B/P) speed of sound = sq rt of bulk modulus / density

Answer 298

**Frequency (Hz)** * high freq = high pitch Pitch is a psychological phenomenon **Intensity-** determined by amplitude of sound wave * measured on decibel scale (dB) * **dB = 10log (I/I_o)** * **I_o** is faintest intensity we can hear a sound **Attenuation:** Intensity of sound decresases over time as energy dissipates

Answer 299

Occurs when source of sound moves relative to observer or the observer moves relative to the sound * ex. ambulance emits constant frequency in all directions; as it travels toward you, sound waves in front of vehicle get compressed --\> perceived as higher frequency Sound waves behind the vehicle get spread out, lower frequency

Answer 300

f' (perceived freq) = f_o ( V_sound + V_observer / V_sound + V_source ) * fo = freq of source * V_soundis velocity of sound through a given medium (constant) If either observer or source are stationary, V = 0 Vobserver is positive if moving towards source Vsource is positive if moving away from observer

Answer 301

High freq Sound waves are emitted and time taken to reflect back can be used to produce images

Answer 302

Wave-particle duality

Answer 303

Electromagnetic wave (transverse waves) * can propagate through air/water but also a vacuum **Electrical and magnetic** components, each perpendicular to each other and both perpendicular to the **velocity** component

Answer 304

Light is made up of many collective electromagnetic waves * waves are randomly polarized (electric/magnetic components can be pointing any direction) * **polarizing filter** is a tool than can be used to linearly polarize light - only allows correctly oriented light to pass (polarized sunglasses)

Answer 305

Polarization where direction of electric and magnetic fields rotate steadily over time * Right-handed or Left-handed Used in optical dichroism to determine chirality

Answer 306

Places each form of EM radiation on a scale according to frequency and wavelength * gamma rays (low freq), X rays, UV rays, visible light, infrared, microwave, radio waves

Answer 307

Described in terms of wavelength (nm) * ranges from 400 nm to 750 nm Red light is high wavelength - INFRA red Violet is short wavelength- ULTRA violet

Answer 308

Used to measure the degree to which a substance absorbs different wavelengths of EM radiation Used to track progress of reaction or guage purity of solution Absorbance: the absorption of certain wavelengths of light

Answer 309

Bounces of surface of mirror at an angle symmetrical to **angle of incidence** * relative to line perpendicular to the surface = **normal line**

Answer 310

If wave travels from one medium into another * changes speed of waves and bends the light Light only refracts when it hits medium at an angle **n = c / v** * c = speed of light in a vacuum * v = light speed in medium n is always greater than 1; n_air is pretty much 1

Answer 311

**n₁sinΘ₁ = n₂sinΘ₂** When light travels from a faster medium to a slower one, the angle gets smaller

Answer 312

If angle of incidence is large enough when passing from one medium to another it can reach **critical angle,** where it reflects 1. Light has to be moving from high n to low n 2. Angle of incidence is large

Answer 313

Light with a longer wavelength (like red light) doesn't change speed or bend as much as that with a shorter wavelength when passing into a new medium * light rays passing through a glass prism

Answer 314

Waves encounter a barrier with a small opening * waves that hit the barrier are reflected back while waves that hit opening expand outward Constructive/destructive interference leads to areas of intensity (**maxima)** and dark regions known as **minima**

Answer 315

One aperture (hole) **AsinΘ = mλ** **A =** size of aperture **Θ=** angle relative to original light beam m = nth minimum

Answer 316

Hole width is negligible, D = distance between the slits * Compared to single slit, minima and maxima are much more evenly distributed **DsinΘ = nλ** n = nth MAXIMUM Maxima are at whole number integers, minima are at half

Answer 317

Light waves reflect off top and bottom boundaries of a substance that forms a thin film

Answer 318

Proposed life is a series of stages each with a conflict to resolve; resolving these successfully leads to healthy development 1. **trust vs. mistrust (0-1):** based on interactions with caregivers, child has trusting or mistrusting attitude towards world 2. **autonomy vs. shame/doubt (1-3):** children begin actively exploring, support decides whether they feel independent or doubtful 3. **initiative vs. guilt (3-6):** children start working on goals and feel good or guilty about them 4. **industry vs inferiority (6-12):** children have various tasks and either are successful or unsuccessful 5. **identity vs role confusion (12-20)** **6. intimacy vs. isolation (20-39)** **7. generativity vs. stagnation (40-65)** **8. integrity vs. despair (65+):** life been worth it?

Answer 319

How people reason about moral choices provides information about how they view themselves 1. **Preconventional-** childhood 1. _Obedience-_ self oriented perspective that focused on negative consequences for breaking a rule 2. _Self-interest-_ self oriented perspective focused on benefits/rewards 2. **Conventional-** adolescence, begins to incorporate perspectives of others 1. _Conformity-_ concerned with approval of others based on social expectations 2. _Law and order-_ the understanding that social expectations and rules help ensure a stable society as a whole 3. **Postconventional-** adulthood 1. _Social construct-_ Laws are seen as ways to reinforce the greater good through a complex network of interrelated rights and responsibilities 2. _Universal human ethics-_ individuals can make abstract judgements and engage in reasoning based on justice

Answer 320

Human psyche is 3 components: **Id-** bundle of basic unconscious urges: survival, reproduction, immediate gratification * the pleasure principle **Ego-** component of personality that interracts with the world, makes decisions * the reality principle **Superego-** what we are supposed to do, ideal version of ourselves * drives us to perfectionism and socially internalized ideals

Answer 321

**Regression-** returning to an earlier developmental stage **Reaction formation-** an unconscious transmutation of unacceptable desires into their opposite **Displacement-** transferring a desire from an unacceptable object to a more acceptable one **Sublimation:** the redirection of desires that are felt to be unacceptable or inappropriate into another behavior **Projection:** individual attributes unwated or uncomfortable feelings towards someone else **Rationalization:** coming up with excuses for feelings or behaviors we feel are problematic **Suppression:** conscious attempts to disregard uncomfortable feelings **Repression:** unconscious suppression of uncomfortable feelings

Answer 322

The human libido persists throughout life; children develop through five stages of life centered around diff body parts **1. Oral (0-1)-** pleasure from feeding and exploring world through their mouths * fixation leads to immature, passive personality with oral tics **2. Anal (1-3)-** children learn to control bladder/bowels * frustration or fixation can lead to anal-retentive personality or anal-repulsive personality (defiance) **3. Phallic (3-6)-** children aware of own genitalia and those of others * Boy experience "Oedipus complex" and want to possess mothers * Girls experience "Electra complex" **4. Latency (6-puberty)-** sexual urges into dormancy **5. Genital (puberty-death)-** libido is focused on their genitals

Answer 323

Humans are able to access a collective unconscious that contains various archetypes

Answer 324

**B.F. Skinner (1930):** Observable behavior and learning comprise the sole reliable sources of knowledge about humans * everything boils down to reflexes or conditional learning; rejection of emotions and self-image

Answer 325

Emphasizes importance of empathy as a therapeutic technique * unconditional positive regard (Carl Rogers): therapist accepts the client completely and verbalizes it Interest in **self-actualization:** ability of people to fully live up to their personality Leads to Maslow's heirarchy of needs

Answer 326

Reduce personalities into a limited set of traits that combine in different ways Characterize people by **The Big Five Theory:** 1. **Openness** 2. **Conscientiousness** 3. **Extraversion-** outgoing and socialness 4. **Agreeableness** 5. **Neuroticism-** the degree to which a person experiences intense emotion in stressful situations Considered more valid due to factor analysis Or **PEN Theory (Hans and Sybil Eysenck)** 1. **Pyschoticism** 2. **Extraversion** 3. **Neuroticism**

Answer 327

**Astrology-** categorize people based on when they were born ## Footnote **Type A vs. Type B personalities** **Myers-Brigg type inventory**

Answer 328

Promoted by Bandura * **Reciprocal determinism:** our behaviors, choices, and personalities influence each other Learning from other people is essential

Answer 329

Genetic factors shape personality

Answer 330

George Herbert Mead * Pyschological development is interplay between "I" internal self and "me" the version of self the environment reflects

Answer 331

Lev Vygotsky * focused on cognition and personality * role of others in how sense of self is shaped

Answer 332

**Biomedical approach-** disorders are physcially-based conditions **Biopsychosocial appraoch-** still recognizes biological causative factors but emphasizes role played psychological and sociological factors * ex. emotions, self-concept * ex. presence of social support, social stigma with mental illness

Answer 333

Mental or behavioral pattern causing distress to a person or impairing their ability to function within society Approx 1/4 of population is thought to have disorder

Answer 334

Classified in **DSM-5:** the definitive source for classification and definition of psychological disorders * based on their symptoms Definitions of disorders are culture specific The understanding of such disorders can change over time (even within the same culture)

Answer 335

1. Depressive disorders 2. Bi-polar disorders 3. Anxiety disorders 4. Obsessive-compulsive disorders 5. Trauma and stress-related disorders 6. Conversion disorders 7. Schizophrenia 8. Dissociative disorders 9. Personality disorders

Answer 336

**Major depressive disorder:** defined by presence of at least one _major depressive episode:_ two week period including 5 or more of the following symptoms: * intense sadness/depressed mood * **Anhedonia**: lack of interest in activities previously thought to be enjoyable * weight changes * sleep disturbances * appetite disturbances * Feelings of guilt or worthlessness * reduced energy * Psychomotor symptoms * Difficulty in focusing attention * Suicidal ideation/attempt **Dysthymia:** less intense form of depression * must occur for at least two years **Persistent depressive disorder:** experience significant depressive symptoms for over two years **Seasonal Affective Disorder:** major depressive disorder with seasonal pattern of onset, usually during winter months

Answer 337

**Bipolar I:** primarily characterized by mania, can also have depressive disorders **Bipolar II:** primarily characterized by depression - one major depressive episode * **hypomania:** less intense mania that may not interfere with function **Cyclothymic disorder:** similar to bipolar II, involves hypomania but lower intensity of depression **manic episode:** a period lasting at least one week during which a person experiences unusally elevated mood and at least 3 of following symptoms: * Grandiosity or unrealistically inflated self esteem (sometimes to point of delusions) * Reduced need for sleep * High levels of distractability * Agitation * Rapid speech or abnormal loquaciousness * Flights of ideas or racing thoughts * Tendency to engage in high-risk behavior * may also involve psychosis (losing contact with reality)

Answer 338

**Generalized Anxiety Disorder:** disproportionate stress and worry regarding a diverse range of otherwise routine aspects of life **Social anxiety disorder:** intense feelings of stress linked to social situations * fear of embarrassment **Illness anxiety disorder (hypochondria):** excessive concern bout medical conditions in the absence of physical symptoms **Phobias:** fall into category of anxiety disorders Anxiety disorders are different than just not liking something * can be functionally debilitating * involve sympathetic response - fast heart rate, sweating, trembling * panic attacks, hyperventilation, sense of impending doom **Panic disorder:** persisting panic attacks

Answer 339

Consists of obsessions and compulsions * **obsessions:** intrusive, impulsive and persistent _thoughts_ * **compulsions:** ritualistic and repetitive behaviors that result from those obsessions * temporary way to gain relief from the anxiety induced by obsessions **Body dysmorphic disorder:** obsessive focus on a perceived flaw in one's appearance that is objectively minor or nonexistent

Answer 340

**Post traumatic stress disorder:** occurs in people exposed to intense acute or chronic trauma * pattern of intrusive recollections * avoidance of stimuli related to trauma * negative changes in mood or cognition related to the traumatic event * altered patterns or reactivity and arousal

Answer 341

Involve physical symptoms **Somatic symptom disorder:** excessive preoccupation or focus on a physical symptom **Conversion disorder:** physical symptoms involving the impairment of sensory or voluntary motor function with _no apparent biological cause_ * onset usually shortly after traumatic event

Answer 342

Disconnection from one's routine state of consciousness and/or personality **Dissociative Identity Disorder:** individual has two or more distinct personalities that appear at different times * tends to occur in people subjected to extreme trauma **Dissociative amnesia:** a form of retrograde amnesia in which people lose episodic memories about their lives **Depersonalization/Derealization disorder:** Pattern in which people feel sense of unreality about their existence

Answer 343

Psychotic disorder characterized by **Positive Symptoms** (addition of something extra onto baseline patterns) * hallucinations * delusions * disorganized thought and behavior * **catatonia:** abnormal movement patterns and **Negative Symptoms** (absence of aspects of one's baseline epxerience): * diminished levels of emotional intensity/intitiative

Answer 344

Peak age for men and women is early 20s * may develop later in life, especially in women * rare beyond age of 50 * development may be preceded by **prodromal phase:** * ****person displays pattern of poor social adjustment and integration Recently schizophrenia has been conceptualized as a spectrum

Answer 345

Antipsychotic (neuroleptic) medications as well as some therapy

Answer 346

Positive Symptoms (addition of something extra onto baseline patterns) * **hallucinations** * ****Perception of non-existent external sensory stimulus * most common are auditory hallucinations * **delusions** * ****beliefs that conflict with reality or do not reflect a broader cultural consensus * tend to persist regardless of contrary evidence * _delusions of persecution:_ powerful forces are acting against the persons best interests * _delusions of grandeur:_ outsized belief in ones exceptional nature * _thought insertion:_ the belief that thoughts can be transmitted into your head * _thought broadcasting:_ belief that your thoughts are visible to others * _delusions of reference:_ belief that aspects of the publicly-available external environment are specifically targeted towards you * **disorganized thought and behavior** * ****refer to a level of disability that makes interactions with outside world diffcult * challenges with hygeine * erratic patterns of interactions with others * speech difficult to understand * **catatonia:** abnormal movement patterns * energy consuming but unusual movements that occur without a specific external cause * tendency to repeat others actions/words * tendency to be lethargic

Answer 347

Diminished levels of emotional intensity/intitiative * Disturbance of _affect_ * how emotion is expressed * may be blunted or flat * mismatch with social conventions

Answer 348

Maladaptive behavioral patterns that cause consistent problems in a person's life * may not be recognized as a problem by affected person Important not to overdiagnose these disorders, risk medicalizing benign variations in human behavior * cannot be conclusively diagnosed in people under 18 years of age * personality thought to not fully crystallize until adulthood Subtypes **Cluster A, B, C**

Answer 349

* **Paranoid Personality disorder-** * ****high level of distrust in others, jealousy, tendency to interpret innocent actions as having malevolent intent * **Schizoid-** marked preference for solitude * tendency to form few relationships * **Schizotypal** * ****intense discomfort in social contexts * unusual beliefs not quite delusions

Answer 350

* **Antisocial-** pervasive pattern of disregard for rights of others * often violent behaviors and lack of remorse * **Narcisstic-** pervasive sense of one's unique talents, brilliance, and attractiveness * fantasies about unlimited success and power * shallow, conflict-driven relationships * may be caused by lack of self esteem and need for validation * **Histrionic-** pattern of flashy, attention seeking behavior * exaggerated but perhaps not fully sincere emotions * **Borderline-** tendency for extremely intense but unstable emotions and moods * Splitting: people are seen as either completely good or completely bad with no gray area * Risky, impulsive behavior

Answer 351

**Avoidant-** persistent sense of inadequacy and hypersensitivity to criticisim * leads people to avoid social situations or challenges at school/workplace **Dependent-** profound need to be taken care of by others * very difficult to be alone * elevated risk for victims of abusive relationships **Obsessive compulsive-** distinct from OCD * excessive concern with rules, order and regulations * perfectionism * controlling, inflexible, stubborn

Answer 352

Strong genetic component * highly heritable Excess levels of dopamine neurotransmitter

Answer 353

Symptoms: tremors, slow movements, loss of facial expressions, bent posture Caused by cell death in **substantia negra** * leads to reduced dopamine expression

Answer 354

Deficiency in neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin * Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are a major class of antidepressants

Answer 355

Memory loss, emotional disturbances * Clumps of beta-amyloid protein plaques and fribrillary tangles of tau proteins in the brain * Reduced levels of neurotransmitter acetylcholine

Answer 356

1. **Epithelial** ## Footnote **2. Nervous** **3. Muscle** **4. Connective**

Answer 357

Connects tissue and organs * bone, blood, adipose (fat), cartilage, ligaments, tendons

Answer 358

Flexible, rubber-like tissue * no nerves or blood vessels Composed of **chondrocytes**, cells that make the protein **collagen** (structural protein that strengthens and connects tissues)

Answer 359

form a single cell layer that lines all blood vessels and regulates exchanges between the bloodstream and the surrounding tissues. Signals from endothelial cells organize the growth and development of connective tissue cells that form the surrounding layers of the blood-vessel wall.

Answer 360

Structural protein that strengthens and connects tissues * most abundant protein in body Found mostly in extracellular matrix (supporting meshwork cells sit in)

Answer 361

Ligaments and tendons are bands of collagenous fibers **Ligaments-** connect bone to bone * "like to like" ligaments **Tendons-** connect muscle to bone * "two types" tendons

Answer 362

1. **Axial** * vertical axis - _skull and vertebral column, rib cage_ **2. Appendicular** * extremeties - pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, upper extremity (arms), lower extremity (legs)

Answer 363

Made up of 22 bones - frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal bones

Answer 364

Has 24 vertebrae * **Cervical** * **Thoracic** * **Lumbar** **Sacrum** and **coccyx** are smaller

Answer 365

Arms: **Humerous, radius and ulna** * if you face your palms forward, the ulna is closest to your body Legs: **femur (**largest bone in body), **tibia and fibula** * tibia is the shin bone, fibula is more slender and connects to the ankle

Answer 366

Long bones * Central shaft is called **diaphysis** * Ends of bone are called **epiphysis** * ****in between the two is the **epiphyseal plate,** or growth plate Growth occurs at growth plate until early adulthood * growth occurs when cartilage is produced at epiphyseal plate, which gets replaced by bone - **ossification**

Answer 367

Flat, such as skull bones

Answer 368

Long bones Flat bones (skull) Short bones (hands and feet) Sesamoid bones- embed with tendon Irregular Bones- neck and spine

Answer 369

Bones embedded in tendons like patella bone of knee caps

Answer 370

Places where bones meet - tons of joint types * pivot, ball and socket, hinge, saddle, plane, condyloid **Synovial Joints:** freely movable joints; two bones meet in **synovial cavity**- fibrous lubricated capsule **Fibrous Joints:** holds two bones together with fibrous connective tissue * ex. skull bones **Cartilaginous joints:** made of cartilage * ex. intervertebral dics

Answer 371

**Bone matrix-** network of collagen fibers, water, and crystallized minerals (**hydroxyapatite-** storage deposit for calcium and phosphate)

Answer 372

Bones contain epithelial, adipose, nerves, blood vessels but also **bone cells:** ## Footnote **Osteoprogenitor cells (stem cells** **Osteoblasts** **Osteoclasts** **Osteocytes**

Answer 373

Cells that create new bone by producing **osteoid** * **"build** bone" Regulated by osteoclasts

Answer 374

Break down bone * \*\* Bone is a storage deposit for calcium; when there is an abundance, osteoblasts incorporate it into bone which makes it stronger and builds calcium storage * osteoclasts get this back when calcium is needed Blood calcium levels have to be finely tuned because muscles rely on precise calcium concentrations for muscle contractions

Answer 375

Most common bone cell type * retired osteoblasts that are relatively inert Each resides in its own pocket of space known as a **lacuna** * communicate through small channels running perpindicular to the Haversion canal known as **canaliculi** * ****exchange nutrients and waste products through extensions of their cytoplasm

Answer 376

**1. Parathyroid (PTH)-** released by parathyroid glands * increases blood calcium * promotes osteoclast bone resorption * promotes absorption of dietary calcium in GI tract **2. Calcatriol-** derivative of vitamin D which the body manufactured at the skin in response to UV light * increases blood calcium **3. Calcitonin-** secreted from thyroid gland in response to high blood calcium * decreases blood calcium levels * inhibits activity of osteoclasts * reduce absorption of dietary calcium

Answer 377

Hard and dense; structural support and movements * fundamental unit is the **osteon:** cylindrical structures composed of concentric rings of bone matrix * in the center of the osteon is the **Haversion canal** through which bones blood and nerve supply pass

Answer 378

"Trabecular or Cancellous" * spongy interior and porous * less dense and stiff Holes in it for blood vessels and bone marrow

Answer 379

Inside flat bones and heads of long bones lies tissue responsible for creating all our blood cells * **Red marrow:** production of all blood cells * **hematopoiesis (**production of red blood cells) and production of white blood cells * **Yellow marrow:** composed of adipocytes, storage deposit for adipose Connected intricately with lymphatic system

Answer 380

**Voluntary-** muscles we have conscious control over * help us move and express emotion * controlled by the somatic branch of the peripheral nervous system **Involuntary-** muscles we dont have control over * controlled by autonomic NS * sympathetic (fight or flight) * parasympathetic (rest and digest) * ex. GI tract, pupils, muscles lining blood vessels and the heart

Answer 381

Bundle of muscle cells encased in connective tissues

Answer 382

Myocytes or muscle fibers

Answer 383

**rod-like myofibrils** which contain **microfilaments of myosin and actin** * organized into repeating units called **sarcomeres**

Answer 384

Normal cell components: mitochondria, lysosomes, etc. * Also contain **myofilaments:** alternating polymers of thick filaments composed of protein **myosin** and thin filaments composed of protein **actin** * ****coordinate to drive muscle contraction

Answer 385

Mysoin and actin - myofilament proteins

Answer 386

sarcoplasm * contains stores of **myoglobin and glycogen**

Answer 387

Sarcolemma

Answer 388

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum * stores calcium ions Is in direct contact with **T-tubules:** projections of the sarcolemma

Answer 389

Repeating unit of actin and myosin fibers that is the fundamental unit of certain muscle types

Answer 390

1. **Skeletal** ## Footnote **2. Smooth** **3. Cardiac**

Answer 391

Under voluntary control * **somatic branch of peripheral nervous system** Skeletal muscles are **s****triated =**appear striped under a microscope due to**sarcomeres (**microscopic units of muscle fibers that do work of contraction) **Multinucleate**

Answer 392

Skeletal muscles are **multinucleate-** result of several muscle fibers fusing together and combining their forces * do so to create larger bulkier stronger muscle cells with multiple nuclei

Answer 393

* **Slow twitch fibers:** **_RED_** because packed with **myoglobin,** the oxygen grabbing protein in muscle * also contain tons of mitochondria to generate ATP through oxidative metabolism * **Fast twitch fibers:** **_WHITE_** fibers, contract quickly but also fatigue quickly * white because less densely packed with myoglobin and mitochondria * _use a different method to generate ATP_

Answer 394

RED because packed with **myoglobin,** the oxygen grabbing protein in muscle * also contain tons of **mitochondria** to generate ATP through oxidative metabolism

Answer 395

WHITE fibers, contract quickly but also fatigue quickly * white because less densely packed with myoglobin and mitochondria * use a different method to generate ATP \*\*Generate ATP through **anaerobic metabolism - glycolysis followed by lactic acid fermentation**

Answer 396

- Line digestive tract for peristalsis contraction to move food bolus - Line blood vessels, mainly arteries and arterioles whicih undergo **vasoconstriction and vasodilation** to control blood flow * veins and venules also contain smooth muscle but less than arteries and arterioles - Also in bladder, uterus

Answer 397

Under involuntary control (autonomic branch) * sympathetic and parasympathetic **Nonstriated** due to lack of sarcomeres, instead contains more loosely organized fibers of myosin and actin that contract **Uninucleate,** one nucleus per cell

Answer 398

Makes up the heart * hybrid between skeletal and smooth muscle - Uninucleate most of the time - Autonomic: **myogenic activity** - Striated due to sarcomeres **Contract synchronously** with the help of **intercalated discs:** _gap junctions_ between cardiomyocytes with ion channels b/w adjacent cells * flow of ions allows simultaneous contraction

Answer 399

with the help of **intercalated discs: contains gap junctions** between cardiomyocytes with ion channels b/w adjacent cells * flow of ions allows simultaneous contraction

Answer 400

Heart contains region known as **sinoatrial (SA) node** thats populated with pacemaker cells * ontract at own rhythm at about 60-100 bpm SA node transmits signals to the rest of the heart, can be modified by inputs from parasympathetic and sympathetic NS

Answer 401

Its individual fibers contract (shorten)

Answer 402

**Sarcomere:** repeating unit in striated muscle cells containing myosin and actin * smooth muscle doesn't contain sarcomeres but contains myosin and actin fibers which can contract _Sliding Filament Theory:_ Myosin and actin fibers bind and tug at each other to shorten length of sarcomere To cause muscle contraction, actin slides over myosin thick filaments _at the center of the sarcomere_ * Actin encroaches on **H zone** (only myosin) and overlaps with it, H-zone effectively shrinks

Answer 403

**Sliding Filament Theory:** Myosin and actin fibers bind and tug at each other to shorten length of sarcomere * Actin (thin) filaments are anchored to **Z-lines:** form boundaries of the sacromere **M-line:** middle of the sacromere **H-zone:** spans length of sacromere that only contains thick myosin filaments with no overlap from actin (in middle) **I-band:** spans region contains only thin actin filaments (near Z line) **A-band:** spans entire length of myosin filament

Answer 404

A-band: spans entire length of myosin filament

Answer 405

Myosin thick filaments have specialized head domain which is initially bound to actin filament 1. To initiate contraction, **ATP** molecule has to bind to myosin head releasing actin 2. ATP hydrolyzes releasing ADP and inorganic phosphate (P_i), which releases energy and moves myosin head further from actin 3. Myosin binds actin at a new position upstream and generates force which pulls actin over myosin, closer to center of sarcomere * shortens sarcomere = **Power stroke** 4. Bound myosin head awaits ATP molecule to begin next cyle

Answer 406

**Calcium** Myosin binding site in actin are by default _blocked_ by the protein **tropomyosin** * Only when calcium is present in cell, it can bind the protein **troponin** which moves tropomysin out of actin's way so it can interact with myosin

Answer 407

ATP to move myosin heads and calcium to move tropomyosin out of the way

Answer 408

Neuromuscular Contraction * Motor neurons interface with skeletal muscles at the **neuromuscular junction (NMJ)** To stimulate muscle contraction, motor neuron initiates action potential which causes neurotransmitters to release into NMJ * \*\*\* ALWAYS **Acetlycholine (ACh)** Triggers influx of sodium into muscle cell, depolarization at cell membrane

Answer 409

One neuron innervates a group of muscles

Answer 410

Acetylcholine receptors at muscle cell membrane (**sarcolemma)**

Answer 411

Action potential travels down sarcolemma to **transverse (T) tubules** that penetrate into the cell to the **sarcoplasmic reticulum** (smooth ER in myocytes) * triggers opening of calcium channels causing sarcoplasmic reticulum to _release stores of calcium ions_ * intracellular calcium conc is usually very low Calcium causes tropomyocin to dissociate from myocin binding sites on actin, allowing them to interact

Answer 412

Any contraction inducing stimuli must be removed * Enzyme **acetylcholinesterase** breaks down acetylcholine neurotransmitter in NMJ In absence of further stimulation, sarcolemma repolarizes, calcium returned to sarcoplasmic reticulum, muscle relaxes

Answer 413

One isolated muscle contraction Multiple action potentials lead to stronger muscle contraction Longer lasting, sustained contraction

Answer 414

Switch to glycolysis and lactic acid fermentation

Answer 415

Lactic acid buildup * Most is converted back to pyruvate

Answer 416

Body's muscles become quite rigid after death due to no ATP to bind to myosin

Answer 417

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands * physical barrier, thermoregulation, immune defense, sensation

Answer 418

epidermis, which can itself be divided into 5 layers

Answer 419

Dead **keratinocytes (**skin cells packed with fibrous protein keratin) * as new cells created by mitosis, older ones are pushed outwards further from the capillaries * deprived of oxygen and die * Produce keratin as a SEALANT, make epithelium impermeable to water * similar to hair Also contains lipid matrix, keratinocyte stem cells, **melanocytes** (produce melanin), **Langerhan cells (**antigen presenting dendritic cells, monitor for invading pathogens), **Merkel cells** (mechanoreceptors that sense touch, more dense in sensitive parts of body)

Answer 420

Ultraviolet damage Differences due to activity of melanocytes and not how many there are

Answer 421

**Dermis**, dense connective tissue, blood and lymphatic vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands

Answer 422

**Ruffini endings** (sense stretching) **Pacinian corpuscles (**vibration/pressure) **Meissner corpuscles (**sensitive touch)

Answer 423

Below the dermis (which is below the epidermis) * also called **subcutaneous layer** Contains adipocytes (fat cells) (structural support and insulation) Also contains macrophages, patrol area for pathogens

Answer 424

When we're cold, arrector pili muscles surrounding hair follicles contract and they become vertical * traps warm air close to skin, creates goosebumps Arterioles near the surface of the skin can vasoconstrict under sympathetic control, diverting blood from skin to other locations

Answer 425

Sweat glands secrete water and other minerals onto skin surface and cool us down through **evaporative cooling** * water has high heat capacity, water can absorb a lot of heat energy and experience small temp increase in response Vasodilation allows more blood to reach skin surface and cool us down

Answer 426

Hypothalamus

Answer 427

Any substance from which light rays reflect, without significant absorption or refraction Concave curves towards the observer, convex curves away from the observer Plane mirrors don't curve

Answer 428

We can see them as an image

Answer 429

Real, convergence of physically real light waves Virtual

Answer 430

Where incident rays converge **f = r/2** * concave, meet on same side as object * convex, meet on opposite side

Answer 431

Focal point and radius can be thought of as infinite * O = distance of object, I = distance of image **1/O + 1/i = 1/f**

Answer 432

**m = -i/o** Image appears larger when absolute value is \>1 Image is inverted if value is **negative** = real * **Positive:** image is upright, its virtual (looking in a mirror)

Answer 433

One ray is parallel from object to mirror, then bounces off through focal point Second ray is from top of object straight through focal point then reflects off mirror parallel to the first ray Image is where these two rays intersect * \*\*Use thin lens equation

Answer 434

No image is formed, i = infinity

Answer 435

Light passes through them almost completely, bending or refracting * \*\*\* Opposite of mirrors: **convex** cause light to converge * **Concave** cause light to diverge

Answer 436

Real image is opposite and inverted Negative = virtual image on same side as object

Answer 437

Reciprocal of the focal length in meters **P = 1/f** Shorter the focal length, the greater the power * lens with a small focal length bends light considerably **Diopter =** inverse meters

Answer 438

Rays don't meet up perfectly when refracted through lens or reflected by mirror * light rays that hit close to the center of the lens focus farther away compared to the edges

Answer 439

Image generated by one lens serves as the object as the next lens, which in turn generates a second image m_total = m₁ x m₂...

Answer 440

1. Light is refracted by cornea, which refracts to a fixed focal length 2. The lens of the eye is deeper and more flexible, can modify image to focus on retina **myopia:** nearsighted, lens refracts light too much making light converge in front of the retina * corrected with diverging lens that spreads out light rays to hit retina **hyperopia:** farsightedness, light converges behind the retina * corrected with converging lens

Answer 441

Adipose tissue and glycogen stores * glycogen is usually the go to when blood glucose gets low

Answer 442

Branched polymer of glucose, thousands of glucose molecules strung together * Center contains protein called **glycogenin:** attachment point for many individual chains of glucose which are themselves branched Glucose molecules are linked by alpha 1,4 bonds

Answer 443

liver and skeletal muscle * liver is where _gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis_ occur * skeletal muscles need stores for energy

Answer 444

The liver through _gluconeogenesis_ (glucose from scratch) and liberating glucose from stores = **glycogenolysis**

Answer 445

In the liver when extra glucose in the blood In skeletal muscle cells it occurs after physical activity/exertion \

Answer 446

1. Begins with **glucose 6-phosphate (G6P)** converted to **G1P** using enzyme **phosphoglucomutase** 2. G1P converted to **UDP-glucose** (type of nucleotide, like GTP and ATP) which is derived from **UTP** 3. **Glycogen synthase** breaks UDP off and creates _alpha 1,4 bond_ between new glucose and existing chain * \*\*glycogen synthase CAN'T create new branches

Answer 447

Glycolysis/gluconeogenesis (intermediate) Glyogenesis

Answer 448

**Glycogen Branching Enzyme** Creates _alpha 1,6 bonds_

Answer 449

Glycogenin adds first few glucose molecules itself, starting points for chains created by **glycogen synthase** and **glycogen branching enzyme**

Answer 450

Breakdown of glycogen for energy 1. Breakdown of glycogen into **glucose 1-phosphate** by **glycogen phosphorylase** 1. 2. __**phosphorylysis: \*\*\***adds PHOSPHATE GROUP to glucose at the end of chain replacing the _alpha 1,4 bond_ 3. 4. NEEDS **glycogen debranching enzyme** to break alpha 1,6 bond at the end of chains 5. 2. **G1P into G6P** by **phosphoglucomutase** **G6P** can then enter glycolysis or gluconeogenesis depending on bodily needs

Answer 451

Glycogenolysis, glycogenesis

Answer 452

**Glycogen phosphorylase** is regulated by **epinephrine** hormone in skeletal cells * when epinephrine binds to receptors on skeletal cells, kicks off signaling cascade which activated glycogen phosphorylase * releases **G1P** In the liver, **glucagon** activates glycogen phosphorylase to raise blood glucose when you haven't eaten in a while

Answer 453

Glucagon, stimulates breakdown of glycogen for glucose when we haven't eaten in a while to raise blood glucose

Answer 454

Insulin in liver cells, promotes satiety (fullness)

Answer 455

In muscle cells, **calcium ions** _upregulate_ glycogen phosphorylase * if muscle cells actively contracting, need glucose * **AMP** is a sign of low energy, also upregulated glycogenolysis In liver cells, **glucose** allosterically _inhibits_ glycogen phosphorylase

Answer 456

**Glycogen synthase** (responsible for lengthening glycogen branches) * **Insulin** upregulated glycogen synthase, causing cells to make more glycogen Insulin is produced when blood glucose is high, main job is to get glucose into the cells * Inhibits its inhibitor

Answer 457

Anabolic pathway that makes raw materials for biosynthesis * bigger molecules out of smaller ones **NADP+ into NADPH** and produces sugar ribose 5-phosphate

Answer 458

NADPH is a powerful antioxidant agent used as reducing agent in **nucleic acid and lipid synthesis** Ribose 5-phosphate is a sugar component of nucleotides

Answer 459

**1. Oxidative phase** * **G6P** shunted away from glycolysis when cell wants to build biomolecules * converted into **6-phosphogluconolactone** by **G6P dehydrogenase** * **\*\***Rate limiting, produces one NADPH * Converted to **6-phosphogluconate** and then cleaved into **Ribulose 5-phosphate** * ****Another NADPH produced * This can easily be converted to **Ribose 5-phosphate**