Chapters for exam 1 (1-6) Flashcards
Define introspection
“Looking within.” The process of observing and recording one’s mental life and experiences. Requires specific trained thought patterns.
True or false: Introspection is a highly regarded method of hypothesis testing in Cognitive psychology today
False, Introspection relies on untestable claims. It relies on a person’s unreliable reports of their subjective perception. Perception is subject to change; thus, this method is unsuited for true scientific data collection.
Who was Wilhelm Wundt?
Early psychology researcher, devised introspection with Edward Bradford Titchener as a way to study thoughts and the inner workings of the mind
Compare and contrast Behaviorism and Introspection
Behaviorism focuses on measurable values such as people’s beliefs, preferences, hopes, and expectations, while introspection is untestable
Who was John B. Watson? Describe his research and opinions on psychology
American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism. behaviorism rejected the study of consciousness. It was convinced that it could not be studied and that past attempts to do so have only been hindering the advancement of psychological theories. pushed for psychology to no longer be considered the science of the “mind”. Instead, stated that psychology should focus on the “behavior” of the individual, not their consciousness.
Describe the transcendental method
A type of theorizing proposed by the philosopher Immanuel Kant. To use this method, an investigator first observes the effects or consequences of a process and then asks: What must the process have been to bring about these effects?
Give an example of the transcendental method
The transcendental method is looking at observable traits to determine unobservable ones. Your
one example: A thief leaves a size 10 footprint. This observable trait can lead us to determine that the thief wears size 10 shoes.
who was Fredrick Bartlett?
British professor of experiential psychology. Theorized that people organize and shape their experiences into “schemas”
Describe at least one historical development that laid the groundwork for the cognitive revolution.
-computers and expanded vocabulary to describe cognition concerning technology.
-gestalt psychology
-Chomsky and linguistics
What is cognitive psychology? Compare the cognitive approach with behaviorism.
This branch of psychology concerns the input, processing, and output involved in mental processes. Behaviorism is only concerned with the output of mental processes.
What are some cognitive psychology applications in therapy and the real world?
think of at least three examples. You may describe CBT, ACT, or how a career may involve cognitive psychology.
H.M.’s Amnesia Disruptions
Impacts on memory, daily life, and learning abilities
Limitation of Introspection
Subjective, unreliable self-reporting for scientific evidence
Referring to Mental States
Necessary to explain behavior according to modern psychologists
Historical Development for Cognitive Revolution
Behaviorism’s limitations and computer science influence
Types of Evidence for Cognitive Psychologists
Behavioral, neurological, and computational evidence
Capgras Syndrome Symptoms
Belief loved ones are impostors, indicating face recognition issues
Cerebral Cortex
Outer layer of brain responsible for higher functions
Four Major Forebrain Lobes
Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes
Functions of Hippocampus, Amygdala, Corpus Callosum
Memory, emotion, and communication between brain hemispheres
Structural vs. Functional Brain Imaging
Brain anatomy vs. brain activity visualization
Combining Brain Study Methods
Enhanced understanding through diverse research techniques
Localization of Function
Specific brain areas responsible for distinct functions
Projection Area in the Brain
Processes sensory or motor information
Contralateral Connections in the Brain
Crossing of sensory and motor pathways between brain hemispheres
Glia
Support cells for neurons in the nervous system
Dendrites
Branch like structures receiving signals from other neurons
Axon
Long fiber transmitting signals away from the neuron cell body
Synapse
Gap between neurons where communication occurs
Neuronal Information Flow
Transmission via chemical and electrical signals
Brain Information Coding
Representation of data through neural activity patterns
Rods vs. Cones
Night vision vs. color vision photoreceptors
Lateral Inhibition
Neural process enhancing contrast and edge detection
Single-Cell Recording in Research
Monitoring individual neuron responses to stimuli
Parallel Processing Benefits
Simultaneous processing for efficiency in visual tasks
Firing Synchrony in Binding Problem
Coordination of neuron firing for unified perception
Perception Beyond Stimulus Input
Incorporating context and prior knowledge in perception
Cornea
transparent tissue at front of each eye, plays important role in focusing incoming light
Lens
transparent tissue located near front of the eye (together with cornea) plays an important role in focusing incoming light. Muscles control the degree of curvature of the lens, allowing the eye to form a sharp image on the retina
Retina
light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eyeball
Photoreceptors
cells on retina that are sensitive to light and that respond when they are stimulated by light
Rods
photoreceptors that are sensitive to very low light levels but that are unable to discriminate hues and that have relatively poor acuity. Often contrasted with cones
Cones
photoreceptors that are able to discriminate hues and have high acuity. Concentrated in retinas fovea and become less frequent in the visual periphery. Often contrasted with rods
Acuity
ability to see fine detail
Fovea
center of retina and region on the eye in which acuity is best; when a person looks at an object, they are lining up the object with the fovea
Bipolar cells
type of neuron in eye. Bipolar cells receive their input from the photoreceptors and transmit their output to the retinal ganglion cells
Ganglion cells
type of neurons in eye. Ganglion cells receive input from bipolar cells, and then axons of the ganglion cells gather together to form the optic nerve, carrying info back to lateral geniculate nucleus
Optic nerve
bundle of nerve fibers, formed from the retina’s ganglion cells, that carries info from the eyeball to the brain
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
important way station in the thalamus that is the first destination for visual info sent from the eyeball to the brain
Lateral inhibition
pattern in which cells, when stimulated, inhibit the activity of neighboring cells. In the visual system, lateral inhibition in the optic nerve creates edge enhancement
Edge enhancement
process created by lateral inhibition in which the neuron in the visual system give exaggerated responses to edges of surfaces
Mach band
type of illusion in which one perceives a region to be slightly darker if it is adjacent to a bright region. Also perceives a region to be slightly brighter if it is adjacent to dark region. This illusion created by lateral inhibition contributes to edge enhancement
Single-cell recording
technique for recording the moment-by-moment activation level of an ind neuron with a healthy, normally functioning brain
Receptive field
portion of the visual field to which a cell within the visual system responds. If appropriately shaped stimulus appears in the appropriate position, the cells’ firing rate will change. Firing rate will not change if the stimulus is of the wrong form or is in the wrong position
Center-surround cells
type of neuron in the visual system that has “donut-shaped” receptive fields. Stimulation in the center of receptive field has one effect on the cell; stimulation in the surrounding ring has the opposite effect.
Area V1
the site on the occipital lobe where axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus first reach the cerebral cortex. This site is (for one neural pathway) location at which info about the visual world first reaches the brain
Parallel processing
a system in which many steps are going on at the same time, usually contrasted with serial processing
Serial processing
system where only one step happens at a time (and so the steps occur in a series) usually contrasted with parallel processing
What system
system of visual circuits and pathways leading from visual cortex to the temporal lobe and especially involved in object recognition. Often contrasted with the where system
Where system
system of visual circuits and pathways leading from the visual cortex to the parietal lobe and especially involved in the spatial localization of objects and in the coordination of movements. Often contrasted with the what system
Binding problem
problem of reuniting the various elements of a scene, given that these elements are initially dealt with by different systems in the brain
Neural synchrony
pattern of firing by neurons in which neurons in one brain area fire at the same time as neurons in another area; the brain seems to use this pattern as an indication that the neurons in diff areas are firing in response to the same stimulus.
Conjunction errors
error in perception in which a person correctly perceives what features are present but misperceives how the features are joined, so a red circle and green square might be misperceived as a red square and a green circle
Necker cube
one of the classic reversible (or ambiguous) figures; the figure is a two-dimensional drawing that can be perceived as a cube viewed from above or as a cube viewed from below
Reversible (or ambiguous figure)
drawings that can be readily perceived in more than one way. Classic examples include the vase/profiles, the duck/rabbit and the necker cube
Figure/ground organization
processing step where the perceiver determines which aspects of the stimulus belong to the central object (or figure) and which aspects belong to the background (or ground)
Gestalt principles
small number of rules that seem to govern how observers organize visual input grouping some elements together but perceiving other elements to be independent of one another
Visual features
elements of visual pattern - vertical lines, curved, diagonals, etc. that together form the overall pattern
Perceptual constancy
achievement of perceiving the constant properties of objects in the world (size shape color) despite changes in the sensory info we receive that are caused by changes in our viewing circumstances
Size constancy
achievement of perceiving the constant size of objects despite changes in the size of the retinal image that result from variations in viewing distance
Shape constancy
achievement of perceiving the constant shape of objects despite changes in the shape of the retinal image that result from variations in viewing angle
Brightness constancy
achievement of perceiving the constant brightness of objects despite changes in the light reaching the eye that result from variations in illumination
Unconscious inference
hypothesized step that perceivers follow in order to take one aspect of visual scene (viewing distance) into account in judging another aspect (size)
Distance cues
info available to the perceiver that allows the perceiver to judge how far off a target object is
Binocular disparity
distance cue based on the differences between the two eyes’ view of the world. This difference becomes less pronounced the farther away an object is from the observer
Monocular distance cues
features of the visual stimulus that indicate distance even if the stimulus is viewed with only one eye
Pictorial cues
patterns that can be represented on a flat surface to create the sense of a three-dimensional object or scene
Interposition
monocular distance cue that relies on the fact that objects farther away are blocked from view by closer objects that happen to be in the viewer’s line of sight
Linear perspective
cue for distance based on the fact that parallel lines seem to converge as they get farther away from the viewer
Motion parallax
distance cue based on the fact that as an observer moves, the retinal images of nearby objects move more rapidly that do the retinal images of objects farther away
Optic flow
pattern of change in the retinal image in which the image grows larger as the viewer approaches an object and shrinks as the viewer retreats from it
Rods
vision at low light, black/white
Cones
color
Both
specialized nerves that convert light into neural impulses
Lateral inhibition
cells when stimulated, inhibit the activity of neighboring cells
Adv
speed, mutual influence among multiple systems (shape of objects and motion)
Dis
problem of reuniting the various elements of a scene so that these elements are perceived in an integrated way (binding problem)
Bottom-up processing
sequence of events that is governed by the stimulus input itself. Often contrasted with top-down processing
Top-down processing
sequence of events that is heavily shaped by the knowledge and expectation that the person brings to the situation. Often contrasted with bottom-up processing
Visual search task
often-used lab task in which research participants are asked to search for a specific target within a field of other stimuli; usually, the researcher is interested in how quickly the participants can locate the target
Tachistoscope
device that allows the presentation of stimuli for precisely controlled amounts of time, including very brief presentation
Mask
visual presentation that is used to interrupt the processing of another visual stimulus
Priming
process through which one input or cue prepares a person for an upcoming input or cue
Repetition priming
pattern of priming that occurs simply because a stimulus is presented a second time; processing is more efficient on the second presentation
Word-superiority effect (WSE)
data pattern in which research participants are more accurate more efficient in recognizing letters if the letters appear within a word (or a word-like letter string) than they are in recognizing letters appearing in isolation
Well-formedness
measure of the degree to which a string of symbols (usually letters) conforms to the usual patterns (for letters; the rules of spelling); for example, the nonword “FIKE” is well formed in english bute “IEFK” is not
Feature nets
systems for recognizing patterns that involve a network for detectors, with detectors for features serving as the initial layer in each system
Activation level
measure of the current status for a node or detector. Activation level is increased if the node or detector receives the appropriate input from its associated nodes or detectors; activation level will be high if input has been received frequently or recently
Response threshold
quantity of info or activation needed to trigger a response in a node or detector, or, in a neuroscience context, a response from a neuron
Bigram detectors
hypothetical units in a recognition system that respond, or fire, whenever a specific letter pair is in view
Local representation
mode of representation in which info is encoded in a small number of identifiable nodes. Local representations are sometimes spoken of as “one idea per node” or “one content per location” often contrasted with distributed representation
Distributed representation
mode of representing ideas or contents in which there is no one node (or specific group of nodes) representing the content and no one place where the content is stored. Instead, the content is represented via a pattern of simultaneous activity across many nodes within a network. The same nodes will also participate in other patterns, so those nodes will also be part of other distributed representations. Often contrasted with local representation
Excitatory connection
link from one node, or one detector, to another, such that activation of one node activates the other. Often contrasted with inhibitory connection
Inhibitory connection
link from one node, or one detector, to another, such that activation of one node decreases the activation level of the other. Often contrasted with excitatory connection
Recognition by components (RBC) model
model of object recognition. In this model, a crucial role is played by geons, the (hypothesized) basic building blocks out of when all the objects we recognize are constructed
Geons
basic shapes proposed as the building blocks of all complex three-dimensional forms. Geons take the form of cylinders, cones, blocks, and the like, and they are combined to form geon assemblies. These are then combined to produce entire objects.
Prosopagnosia
syndrome in which inds lose their ability to recognize faces and to make other fine-grained discriminations within a highly familiar category, even though their other visual abilities seem intact
Inversion effect
pattern typically observed for faces in which the specific face is much more difficult to recognize if the face is presented upside-down; this effect is part of the evidence indication that face recognition relies on processes different from those involved in other forms of recognition
Holistic perception
process in which the ability to identify an object depends on the whole, or the entire configuration, rather than on an inventory of the object’s parts. In holistic perception, the parts do play a role - but by virtue of creating the patterns that are critical for recognition
Selective attention
skill through which a person focuses on one input or one task while ignoring other stimuli that are also on the scene
Dichotic listening
a task in which research participants hear two simultaneous verbal messages - one presented via headphones to the left and ear and another presented to the right ear. In typical experiments, participants are asked to pay attention to one of these inputs (the attended channel) and are urged to ignore the other (the unattended channel)
Attended channel
stimulus (group of stimuli) that a person is trying to perceive. Ordinarily, info is understood or remembered from the attended channel. Often contrasted with unattended channel
Unattended channel
stimulus (or group of stimuli) that a person is not trying to perceive. Ordinarily, little info is understood or remembered from the unattended channel. Often contrasted with attended channel
Shadowing
task in which research participants repeat back a verbal input, word for word, as they hear it
Filter
hypothetical mechanism that would block potential distractors from further processing
Fixation target
visual mark at which research participants point their eyes, or fixate. Fixation targets help research participants to control their eye position
Inattentional blindness
pattern in which perceivers seem literally not to see stimuli right in front of their eyes; this pattern is caused by the participants focusing their attention on some other stimulus and not expecting the target to appear
Change blindness
pattern in which perceivers either do not see or take a long time to see large-scale changes in a visual stimulus. This pattern reveals how little people perceive, even from stimuli in plain view, if they are not specifically attending to the target info
Early selection hypothesis
proposal that selective attention operates at an early stage of processing, so that the unattended inputs receive little analysis
Late selection hypothesis
proposal that selective attention operates at a late stage of processing, so that the unattended input received considerable analysis
Biased competition theory
proposal that attention functions by shifting neurons’ priorities, so that the neurons are more responsive to inputs that have properties associated with desired or relevant input
Spatial attention
mechanism through which people allocate processing resources to particular positions in space, so that they more efficiently process any inputs from that region in space
Limited-capacity system
group of processes in which mental resources are limited, so that extra resources supplied to one process must be balanced by a withdrawal of resources somewhere else - with the result that the total resources expended do not exceed the limit of what is available
Mental resources
some process or capacity needed for performance, but in limited supply
Endogenous control of attention
mechanism through which a person chooses (often, on the basis of some meaningful signal) where to focus attention
Exogenous control of attention
mechanism through which attention is automatically directed, essentially as a reflex response, to some “attention-grabbing” input
Feature integration theory
proposal about the function of attention in “gluing” together elements and features that are in view
Divided attention
skill of performing multiple tasks simultaneously
Executive control
mental resources and processes that are used to set goals, choose task priorities, and avoid conflict among competing habits or responses
Perseveration error
pattern of responding in which a person produces the same response over and over, even though the person knows that the task requires a change in response. This pattern is often observed in patients with brain damage in the frontal lobe
Goal neglect
pattern of behavior in which people fail to keep their goal in mind, so that, for example, they rely on habitual responses even if those responses will not move them toward the goal
Automaticity
state achieved by some tasks and some forms of processing, in which the task can be performed with little or no attention. In many cases automatized actions can be combined with other activities without interference. Automatized actions are also often difficult to control, leading many psychologists to refer to them as mental reflexes
Stroop interference
classical demonstration of automaticity in which research participants are asked to name the color of ink used to print a word, and the word itself is the name of a diff color. For example, participants might see the word “yellow” printed in blue ink and be required to say blue. Considerable interference is observed in this task, with participants apparently being unable to ignore the word’s content even though it is irrelevant to their task
Acquisition
process of placing new info into long term mem
Storage
state in which memory, once acquired, remains until retrieved. May understand storage to be a dormant process, so that the memory remains unchanged while it is in storage. Modern theories, however, describe a more dynamic from of storage, in which older memories are integrated and (sometimes replaced by) newer knowledge
Retrieval
process of locating info in mem and activating that info for use
Modal model
nickname for specific conception of the architecture of memory. In this model, working memory serves both as the storage site for material now being contemplated and as the loading dock for long-term memory. Info can reach working memory through the process or perception, or it can be drawn from long-term memory. Once in working memory, material can be further processed or can simply be recycled for subsequent use. This model prompted a large quantity of valuable research, but it has now largely been set aside, with modern theorizing offering a very different conception of working memory
Sensory memory
form of memory that holds on to a just seen or just heard input in a raw sensory form
short term memory
and older term for what is now called working memory
working memory
storage system in which info is held while that info is being worked on. All indications are the working memory is a system, not a single entity, and that info is held here via active processes, not vis\a some sort of passive storage. Formerly called short-term memory
Long term memory (LTM)
storage system where we hold all of our knowledge and all of our memories. LTM contains memories that are nor currently activated; those that are activated are represented in working memory
Free recall procedures
method used for testing what research participants remember; participants are given a board cue (what happened yesterday) and then try to name the relevant items, in any order they choose. It is the flexibility in order that makes this recall “free”
Primacy effect
often-observed advantage in remembering the early-presented materials within a sequence of materials. This advantage is generally attributed to the fact that research participants can focus their full attention on those items because, at the beginning of a sequence,the participants are not trying to divide attention between these items and other items in the series. Often contrasted with recency effect
Recency effect
tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series. If the series was presented, the recency effect can be attributed to the fact that the late-arriving items are still in working memory (because nothing else has arrived after those items to bump them out of working mem) contrasted with the primacy effect
Serial position
data pattern summarizing the relationship between some performance measure and the order in which the test materials were presented. In mem studies, the serial-position curve tends to be U-shaped, with people being best able to recall the first-presented items (primacy effect) and also the last-presented items (recency effect)
memory rehearsal
mental activity that has the effect of maintaining info in working mem. Two types of rehearsal are often distinguished; maintenance rehearsal and relational (or elaborative rehearsal)
Digit span task
task often used for measuring working mem’s storage capacity. Research participants are read a series of digits and must immediately repeat them back. If successful they are given a long list, and so forth. Length of the longest list a person can remember in this fashion is that person’s digit span. See als operation span
7 +/- 2
range often offered as an estimate of the number of items or units able to be contained in working memory
Chunks
hypothetical storage units in working mem; it is estimated that working mem can hold 7 plus or minus 2 chunks. However, an unspecific quantity of info can be contain within each chunk, because the content of each chunk depend son how the memorizer has organized the materials to be remembered
operation span
measure or working mem capacity. This measure turns out to be predictive of performance in many other tasks, presumably because these tasks all rely on working mem. This measure is also the modern replacement for the (less useful) measure obtained from the digit-span task
working memory capacity (WMC)
measure of working mem derived from operation span tasks. Although termed a “mem capacity” this measure can perhaps best be understood as a measure of a person’s ability to store some materials while simultaneously working with other materials
Working memory system
system of mental resources used for holding info in an easily accessible form. The central executive is at the heart of this system, and the executive then relies on a number or low-level assistant, including the visuospatial buffer and the articulatory rehearsal loop
Articulatory rehearsal loop
one of the low-level assistants hypothesized as being part of the working-memory system. This loop draws on subvocalized (covert) speech, which serves to create a record in the phonological buffer. Materials in this buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by another cycle of covert speech
Subvocolization
covert speech in which one goes through the motions of speaking, or perhaps forms a detailed motor plan for speech movements, but without making any sound
Phonological buffer
passive storage system used for holding a representation (internal echo) of recently heard or self produced sounds
Concurrent articulation task
speaking or miming of speech while doing other tasks. In many cases the person is require to say tah tah tah over and over or one two three… these procedures occupy the muscles and control mechanisms needed for speech, sot they prevent the person from using these resources for subvocalization
Maintenance rehearsal
a rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory, merely by being repeated over and over. Often contrasted with relational (or elaborative) rehearsal
Relational (or elaborative rehearsal)
form of mental processing in which one thinks about the relations, or connections, among ideas. The connections created (or strengthened) in this way will later guide memory search
Intentional learning
the acquisition of memories in a setting where people know that their mem for the info will be tested later. Often contrasted with incidental learning
incidental learning
learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and , correspondingly, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test. Often contrasted with intentional learning
Shallow processing
mode of thinking about material where one pays attention to appearances and other superficial aspects of the material; shallow processing typically leads to poor memory retention. Often contrasted with deep processing
Deep processing
mode of thinking in which a person pays attention to the meaning and implications of the material; deep processing typically leads to excellent memory retention. Often contrasted with shallow processing
Level of processing
An assessment of how “deeply” newly learned materials are engaged; shallow processing involves thinking only about the material’s superficial traits, whereas deep processing involves thinking about what the material means. Deep processing is typically associated with a greater probability of remembering the now-processed info
Retrieval paths
connection (or series of) that can lead to sought-after memory in long-term storage
Mnemonic strategies
techniques designed to improve memory accuracy and to make learning easier; in general; these seek to help memory by imposing an org on the materials to be learned
Peg word system
type of mnemonic strategy suing words or locations as “pegs” on which to “hang” the materials to be remembered
