chapters 7-8 Flashcards
1
Q
memory stores
A
retain information in memory without using it for any specific purpose
2
Q
control processes
A
shift information from one memory to another
3
Q
sensory memory
A
a memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for a very brief amount of time
4
Q
the atkison-shiffron model states that memory is comprised of many different ________ and is said to be a/an ________(complete/incomplete) model of memory
A
subsystems
5
Q
spotlight of attention
A
allows some sensory information to be transferred to STM
6
Q
change blindness
A
occurs when information is outside this spotlight
7
Q
short-term memory (STM)
A
- is a memory store with limited capacity and duration (<1 min).
- Able to hold 7±2 items or chunks in STM
8
Q
chunking
A
Organizing smaller units of information into larger, more meaningful units
9
Q
Long-term memory (LTM)
A
is a memory store that holds information for extended periods of time
10
Q
encoding
A
the process of storing information into memory traces
11
Q
retrieval
A
brings information from LTM back into STM
12
Q
why is it important that not all STM makes it to LTM?
A
if this was the case, we would have a lot of useless retained information in our memory
13
Q
explain the process of short-term memory transferring to long-term memory
A
- a stimulus is detected by the sensory organs
- transduction from physical energy (sensation) into neutral impulses (perception)
- once the stimulus enters sensory memory and is paid attention to, it is processed into STM
- when rehearsed, some of this information is encoded into LTM
14
Q
what is the serial position effect?
A
tendency to recall earlier and later items from a list
15
Q
Rapid presentation of list disrupts ______ effect, whereas delayed recall of list disrupts ______ effect
A
primacy effect, recency effect
16
Q
What evidence proves that we have separate memory stores? (2)
A
-Rapid presentation of list disrupts primacy effect, whereas delayed recall of list disrupts recency effect
- neuroimaging studies:*Hippocampus: active when remembering at the beginning of the list (primacy effect) vs sensory information areas (recency effect, more active when recalling)
- Brain damage differentially affects STM and LTM
- damage to the hippocampus will affect your long term memory whereas damage to the sensory info areas affects your STM
17
Q
retroactive interference
A
when the most recently learned info overshadows some of the info that came before
18
Q
proactive interference
A
when the first informations learned occupies the memory which leaves fewer memory resources to remember later information
19
Q
the working memory model
A
a model of short-term remembering that includes a combination of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of information for a short period of time
20
Q
the working memory model suggests that we have a little more _______ control over our memory
A
conscious
21
Q
visuospacial sketchpad
A
storage component of WM that maintains visual images and spatial layouts
22
Q
episodic buffer
A
storage component of WM that combines the images and sounds from the other two components into coherent episodes
23
Q
phonological loop
A
storage component of WM that relies on rehearsal and stores information as sounds
24
Q
central executive
A
the control center of WM; it coordinates attention and the exchange of information among the three storage components above
25
phonological store
linked to our speech perception, holds info in a speech based form for a few seconds
26
articulatory control process
linked to our speech production, rehearse info, stays for about 15-20 seconds
27
what word length is most commonly remembered in the phonological loop?
words that only have one syllable as oppose to words that have 4 or more, this is called the word length effect
28
which regions of the brain are used in the phonological loop process?
speech and hearing specific brain regions
29
feature binding
combining visual features into a single unit (i.e., visual chunking) (visuospacial sketchpad)
30
how many objects can our visuospacial sketchpad remember?
around 4
31
which working memory system can manipulate images from our long term memory?
visuospatial sketchpad
32
which is the newest working memory system?
episodic buffer
33
what is the item capacity of the episodic buffer? Can this be expanded? How?
7-10 item capacity, 7-10 more of those words if the words are not random
34
working memory store that links other systems to long term memory
episodic buffer
35
what region of the brain is active along with the activation of the central executive?
frontal lobes
36
what are the 2 predictions made by the working memory model when it comes to the completion of tasks?
1. Two tasks that make use of same component will interfere with one another if performed simultaneously
2. Two tasks that make use of different components will not affect each other if performed simultaneously
37
what is the dual task technique? What does it conclude?
Digit span task (repeating a list of numbers) conducted concurrently with a verbal reasoning task asking true/false questions (e.g., “B is followed by A?”)
-as the number of digits increased, there was a very minimal increase in the amount of time it took to answer the other questions, not much disruption
-this means that the working memory model is partially correct, there are some subsystems of memory
38
declarative (explicit) memories
- long term memory system
| - are memories that are conscious and can be verbalized
39
non-declarative (implicit) memories
- long term memory system
| - include actions or behaviours that you can remember and perform without awareness
40
semantic memories
-subsystem of declarative memories that include our general knowledge and facts about the
world
–E.g., Provincial capitals
41
episodic memories
-subsystem of declarative memories that include personal experiences recalled from a first-person perspective
–‘Mental time travel’
-ex: what did you have for breakfast this morning?
42
procedural memories
-nondeclarative memory that includes a pattern of muscle movements (motor memory)
–Skill learning
43
priming
- nondeclarative memory
- previous exposure to a stimulus will affect an individual’s later responses
- makes use of subliminal stimuli
44
Long term potential (LTP)
the enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signal between nerve cells that fire together
-hippocampus is activated
45
consolidation
the process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories in the brain •Without consolidation, memories decay
46
retrograde amnesia
inability to remember what was already known at the onset of the amnesia (everything before the injury is forgotten)
47
anterograde amnesia
inability or limited ability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia (everything after the injury is forgotten)
48
Henry Molaison case
- Bilateral hippocampal removal to treat severe seizures
- procedural memories were maintained and he could form new ones
- ex: tracing a star looking through a mirror, he could get better at it over time, but he could not recall having ever done it
49
maintenance rehearsal
- encoding
| - prolonging exposure to information by repeating it
50
what is the relationship between rehearsal time and the accuracy of recall?
-no relationship between rehearsal time and the accuracy of recall, doesn’t matter how long we rehearse, matters how we rehearse
51
elaborative rehearsal
prolonging exposure to information by thinking about its meaning
52
which is more effective, elaborative or maintenance rehearsal?
elaborative
53
what is shallow processing? give an example
involves superficial properties of a stimulus
| -ex: someone being given the word trust, and being asked whether it rhymes with another word ex: dust
54
what is deep processing? give an example
related to an item’s meaning or its function
| -ex: someone being given the word train and being asked if it’s synonymous to the word locomotive
55
self-reference effect
occurs when you think about informations in terms about how it relates to you
56
survival processing
strategy of processing items in terms of how it relates to your survival
57
what are the 2 forms of intentional memory retrieval?
recognition and recall
58
recognition
identifying a stimulus or piece of information when it is presented
•E.g.., Multiple-choice tests
59
recall
retrieving information when asked, but without the information being present
•E.g., Short-answer tests
60
encoding specificity principle
predicts that retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same context as encoding
61
context dependent learning
when retrieval is more effective when it is in the same physical context (ex: being in the same classroom when you write a test as when you have the lectures) people recall about 40% more words
62
state dependent learning
when retrieval is more effective when internal conditions match the experiences during the encoding process (ex: heart rate)
63
mood-dependent learning
when someone’s mood was the same during retrieval and encoding
64
give an example of context dependent forgetting
ex: going into another room and completely forgetting what you went there for
65
give an example of the context reinstatement effect
ex: going back into the original room and suddenly remembering what you needed in that other room
66
flashbulb memory
- an extremely vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event (can be positive or negative)
- people are very confident that their memories are accurate, but they are no more accurate than normal memories
67
what is the effect of chronic stress vs acute stress on memory?
- chronic stress eventually hinders memory
| - acute stress can be a benefit to memory
68
what does the forgetting curve say about memory loss?
-half the information that is learned is forgotten and the rest is remembered for a longer period of time
69
Mnemonics
techniques that are intended to improve memory for specific information
70
name 4 different mnemonics
- acronyms
- first letter technique
- dual coding
- method of loci
71
acronym
pronounceable word whose letters represent the initials of an important phrase or set of items
72
first letter technique
uses the first letters of a set of items to spell out words that form a sentence
73
dual coding
occurs when information is stored in more than one form
| –Alphabet song
74
method of loci
a mnemonic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path
-ex: imagining yourself going through a specific path and seeing items throughout the path
75
testing effect
taking a practice test can improve exam performance
76
spacing effect
Material is better recalled when studied over a period of short sessions spaced apart, instead of in one long session
77
interleaving
mixing in the study of different subjects in one study session
78
schemas
an organized cluster of memories that constitutes one’s knowledge about events, objects, and ideas
79
constructive memory
is a process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details
80
false memory
remembering events that did not occur, or incorrectly recalling details of an event
81
misinformation effect
happens when information occurring after an event becomes part od the memory for that event
82
DRM procedure
-giving a list of words that are all related, but excluding a critical word, people tend to add this word into their list even though it was never presented
83
reality monitoring
the ability to distinguish between memories for events that have actually occurred and memories for imagined events
84
source monitoring
the ability to properly attribute how (i.e. from what source) a memory originated
85
destination memory errors
happens when people have forgotten who they’ve told a story to and repeat it over and over again to the same people
86
guided imagery
involves a researcher giving instructions to a participant to imagine certain events
87
imagination inflation
refers to the increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event
88
what proves that brains are better at distinguishing false memories than our conscious behaviour is?
-sensory areas are more active when recalling an actual memory than a false memory because our sensory part of the brain has never experienced it
89
what are methods that increase accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
- double blind procedures
- appropriate instructions
- carefully composed lineup: based on the description of the accused
- sequential lineups: presenting one person at a time
- confidence statements: making sure the people are a reliable source
- recorded procedures: to assure that the procedure was done correctly
90
recovered memories
memories of traumatic events that are suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long period of time
91
concept
the mental representation of an object, event, or idea
| -can divided into smaller groups with more precise labels (dogs divided into breeds for example)
92
categories
clusters of interrelated concepts
93
classical categorization
early views that objects or events are categorized according to a certain set of rules
94
graded membership
some examples make better category concepts than others
95
prototype
mental representations of an average category member
96
semantic network
an interconnected set of nodes (or concepts) and the links that join them to for a category
-ex: we are quicker to say that a robin is a bird rather than an animal
97
basic level category
includes things like birds and pig, things that we include in daily conversation
98
category specific visual agnosia (CSVA)
inability to identify certain categories
99
domain specific hypothesis
idea that evolutionary pressures lead to developed circuits in our brain that were important to our survival ex; animals, fruits, vegetables, tools, member of our own species
100
linguistic relativity (Whorfian hypothesis)
the theory that the language we encounter and use determines/influences how we understand the world
101
universalist view
common repertoire of thought and perception that then influences all languages and how they develop/evolve
102
trial and error
trying possible solutions and discarding those that don’t work until finding one that does
103
algorithms
problem-solving strategies based on a series of rules
- often slow and illogical
- Anagrams: IHCRA (chair)-algorithmic approach, we use a system to solve the problem
104
heurstics
problem-solving strategies that stem from prior experience and provide ‘mental shortcuts’ (educated guess)
- quicker and more efficient
- often leads us to make errors
105
if you were to lose your keys, give an example of a heuristic approach to finding them vs an algorithmic approach
- Algorithmic approach would be to backtrack to all the places where they could be
- Heuristic approach: thinking about all the places that are more likely to have the keys before starting to search
106
mental set
a cognitive obstacle that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a routine solution to what is actually a new problem
-make up rules that don’t actually exist (9 dot problem)
107
functional fixedness
occurs when an individual identifies a potential object, but can only think of its most obvious function
108
conjunction fallacy
mistaken belief that finding a specific member in two overlapping categories is more likely than finding any member of one of the larger, general categories
109
representativeness heuristic
making judgments of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category
110
gambler's fallacy
the belief that chances of something happening with a fixed probability
111
Monty Hall problem
- Suppose you're on a game show, and you're given the choice of three doors: Behind one door is a car; behind the others, goats. You pick a door, say No. 1, and the host, who knows what's behind the doors, opens another door, say No. 3, which has a goat. He then says to you, "Do you want to pick door No. 2?" Is it to your advantage to switch your choice?
- switching doors doubles your probability of winning the car
112
availability heuristic
entails estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind
113
anchoring effect
tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (i.e., the anchor) when making decisions
114
framing effect
- Decision making is influenced by how a problem is framed
| * can be intentional or unintentional
115
belief perserverance
occurs when an individual believes he or she has the solution to the problem or the correct answer for a question, and accepts only evidence that will confirm those beliefs
116
confirmation bias
occurs when an individual searches only for evidence that will confirm his or her beliefs instead of evidence that might disconfirm them
117
language
form of communication that involves spoken, written, or gestural symbols that are combined in a rule-based form
118
what are 4 unique features of human language?
1) semanticity (arbitrary sounds) ex: the word dog has no properties with a dog
2) productivity (language can produce entirely new meanings)
3) displacement (being able to communicate about object or events that are displaced in time or on space) -dogs do not have this ability, if you tell it it’s getting a treat later it won’t understand
4) socially learned (dogs don’t have this either)
119
phonemes
the most basic unit of speech sounds
120
morphemes
the smallest meaningful units of a language
121
semantics
the study of how people come to understand the meaning of words
-dyslexia: people have difficulty translating the spoken form into the written form
122
syntax
the rules for combining words and morphemes into meaningful phrases and sentences
123
pragmatics
the study of non-linguistic elements of language use
124
contextual effects of pragmatics
anything that modifies the meaning of a word or phrase (prior knowledge, environment, tone of voice)
125
informal rules of language
each language has common phrases
126
aphasias
language disorders caused by damage to the brain structures that support using and understanding language
127
Wernicke's area
area of the brain most associated with finding meaning of words
128
Damage to Wernicke's area is associated with ______? (semantics or syntax)
semantics
129
Broca's area
a frontal lobe structure that controls our ability to articulate speech sounds that compose words
130
Damage to Broca's area is associated with ______? (semantics or syntax)
syntax
131
what do newborns know about language?
they distinguish function and content words by 6 months, learning the most important words like nouns and verbs
132
what do infants as young as 2 months know about language?
they show a preference for speech sounds over non-speech sounds, infants look longer at things they find more interesting
133
what do 3 month old infants know about language?
they are capable of distinguishing all 200 phonemes, but lose this ability around 10 months
134
fast mapping
the ability to map onto concepts after only a single exposure
135
naming explosion
a rapid increase in vocabulary size that occurs around 20-24 months of age
136
over-generalization in language
applying rules to words that they shouldn't
137
over-extension in language
a child uses a word to label multiple different things that are inconsistent
138
under-extension in language
a child uses a term too narrowly , ex: using the word flower for only a specific type of flower
139
sensitive period of language
a time during childhood during which children's brains are primed to develop language skills
140
when does the sensitive time of learning a language dissapear? (what year of age?)
7
141
what are the cons of having a bilingual brain?
- smaller vocab in bilingual children
| - word access diminished adulthood compared to uniligual adults
142
benefits of having a bilingual brain
- executive functions improved
| - potential health benefits
143
behaviorist theory of language aquisition
children acquire sentence structure and syntax through learning and conditioning (B.F. Skinner 1950's)
144
nativist theory of language aquisition
assumes humans have a native (genetic) predisposition to develop language (Noam Chomsky 1950's)
145
Interactionist theory
language development involves both biology and experience
146
what is FOXP2?
Forkhead box protein P2 (FOXP2) is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the FOXP2 gene, and is required for proper development of speech and language
147
cross-fostered
raised as a member of a family that was not of the same species
148
enculturation
the gradual acquisition of the characteristics and norms of a culture
149
what are 3 examples of complex animal communication?
- honey bee waggle dance
- referential alarm calls
- dolphin whistle
150
how do we know that evolutionary precursors of language exist in non-human animals? (semanticity, productivity, displacement, socially learned)
- semanticity: referential alarm calls
- productivity: combining signs
- displacement: waggle dance
- socially learned: vocal learning species
