chapters 4-6 Flashcards
1
Q
sensation
A
the process of detecting external events by the sense organs
Sensory adaptation: ex: getting used to a bright light after being in a dark room for a long time
2
Q
transduction
A
process in which physical or chemical stimulation is converted into a neural impulse that is relayed to the brain
3
Q
Perception
A
involved attending to, organizing, and interpreting stimuli that we sense
-occurs in our brain
4
Q
absolute threshold
A
the minimum amount of energy or quantity of a stimulus required for it to be reliably detected at least 50% of the time it is presented
5
Q
difference threshold
A
the smallest detectable difference between stimuli
-ex: adding hot sauce to your food , the amount you add depends on how much you need to add to notice the change
6
Q
signal detection theory
A
states that whether a stimulus is perceived depends on both sensory experience and judgment made by the subject
- ex: on edge because you heard about a bear sighting, you’re walking in the woods and you’re hearing things, you don’t know if it’s real or if you’re imagining it
- *more likely to report sound if you’re by yourself at night in the dark, rather than with people in the daylight
7
Q
subliminal perception
A
-we detect subliminal stimuli
*activation of certain regions of the brain
Ex: we see it but we may not report having seen it because it was under our absolute threshold
8
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
figure-ground principle
A
objects and figures in our environment tend to stand
out against a background
Ex: holding a convo in a noisy and crowded room, the person you’re talking to would be the figure and the noise at the party would be the ground
9
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
proximity
A
objects in close proximity tend to be treated as a group
10
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
similarity
A
Similarity: objects of similar shape, colour, or orientation tend to be grouped
11
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
continuity
A
items seen as whole figures, even if broken into segments
12
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
closure
A
we fill in gaps to complete a whole
13
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
Top-down processing
A
occurs when prior knowledge and expectation guide what is perceived
-ex: looking for a friend in a crowded room, we already know what they look like, this description will help us when we are looking for them instead of just getting a description of a person
14
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
Bottom-up processing
A
is constructing a whole stimulus or concept from bits of raw sensory information
Ex: driving in a foreign country, you build a representation of what road signs mean because you are not used to them, often use this process when we are seeing things for the first time
15
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
selective attention
A
involves focusing on one particular event or task
-more likely if we’re learning a new task
16
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
divided attention
A
- involves paying attention to several stimuli or tasks at once
- self proclaimed multitaskers perform worse on cognitive tests, they’re easily distracted
-impairs your memory in the moment
Ex: one group had to remember words, another group had to remember the words and do another task at the same time, the multitasking students struggled to remember the words
-all people are bad multitaskers
17
Q
Gestalt principles of perception:
intentional blindness
A
a failure to notice clearly events or objects because attention is directed elsewhere
18
Q
sclera
A
white outer layer of the eye
19
Q
cornea
A
Clear layer that covers the front of the eye, contributes to our ability to focus the light
20
Q
pupil
A
Regulates amount of light let into eye by changing it’s size, dilates to allow more light and constricts to allow less
21
Q
iris
A
round muscle that adjusts the size of the pupil (gives the eye color)
22
Q
lens
A
clear structure that focuses light on the back of the eye
23
Q
the retina:
cones
A
photoreceptors sensitive to wavelengths of light we perceive as colour; active in normal lighting conditions
24
Q
the retina:
fovea
A
cone rich region in center of retina on which light is focused (highest amount of cones in this area) explains why objects in our direct line of sight are clear and anything around you is not as clear (seeing something in the corner of your eye)
25
the retina:
| rods
photoreceptors on periphery of retina that are highly sensitive to low light levels, unlike cones which are responsible under good lighting conditions (responsible for peripheral vision, picking up movement from the corner of your eye)
26
dark adaptation
the process by which rods and cones gain sensitivity to low light levels
27
the optic nerve:
| bipolar neurons
synapse onto photoreceptors
28
the optic nerve:
| ganglion cells
long axon tracts that go to the brain, transmits signals from bipolar neurons to brain
29
the optic disc
area on retina lacking rods and cones (blind spot)
30
the optic nerve
axon tracts from ganglion cells leading to brain
31
trichromatic theory
maintains that colour vision is determined by three different cone types that are sensitive to short, medium, and long wavelength light
32
opponent process theory
states that we perceive colour in terms of opposite ends of the spectrum (red to green, yellow to blue, white to black)
33
optic chiasm
crossover point for optic nerve at midpoint of the brain (each eye has connections that are sent to the opposite and the same side of the eye)
34
lateral geniculate nucleus
region within the thalamus that directs visual information throughout the brain
35
feature detection cells
neurons that respond selectively based on specific aspects of a stimulus (e.g., angles and edges) as well as to specific regions of the visual field
36
ventral stream
extends from visual cortex to temporal lobe
–Responsible for object and face recognition
–Pareidolia (explains why we see faces in places where there aren’t actually any)
and prosopagnosia (brain damage unable to recognize someone’s face, there is less activity in the fusiform area than there should be)
–Fusiform face area: devoted to recognizing faces
–Perceptual constancy
37
greeble experiment
fusiform face area responsible for visual expertise
-after training the individuals to recognize which greeble goes into which group, it was easier to recognize and the fusiform area was more activated
38
perceptual constancy
the ability to perceive objects as having constant shape, size and colour despite changes in perspective
- we can judge the angle of an object
- ex: looking at a door when it’s closed, it’s a rectangle, even when the door opens and it is no longer a rectangle, we still perceive it as being a rectangle
39
lightness constancy
maintain perception under uneven illumination
| -even if the light information may change, we don’t perceive it as a change in colour
40
dorsal stream
extends from visual cortex to the parietal lobe
| –Responsible for depth and motion perception
41
binocular depth cues
distance cues that are based on the differing perspectives of both eyes
42
convergence
occurs when the eye muscles contract so that both eyes focus on a single object
–Ex: Fingertip to nose, closing your left eye vs closing your right eye
43
retinal disparity
the difference in relative position of an object as seen by both eyes
–Stereoscopic vision
-combining information from both eyes is what gives us the 3D perception of the world
44
monocular depth cues
these are depth cues that we can perceive with only one eye
45
accomodation
curving of lens to focus on nearby objects
46
motion parallax
used when surroundings are in motion (looks like your surroundings are in motion, objects that are further back tend to look like they’re moving slower)
47
pitch of a sound
perceptual experience of sound wave frequencies (high frequency sound: high pitch, short wave lengths)
-frequency range differs by species
48
loudness
perceptual experience of amplitude (high amplitude are louder than low amplitude waves
49
3 components of the outer ear
pinna (helps channel and direct sound into our auditory canals), auditory canal, eardrum (membrane that vibrates when breached by sound waves
50
3 bones of middle ear
ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) eardrum is attached to these bones so these vibrate when the eardrum vibrates
51
component of the inner ear
cochlea (fluid filled cavity: converts the sound into a neural impulse)
52
place theory of hearing
how we perceive pitch is based on the location (place) along the basilar membrane that sound stimulates, high frequency sounds tend to stimulate hairs closer to the cochlea and low frequency sounds tend to stimulate hairs further from the cochlea
53
frequency theory
states the perception of pitch is related to the frequency at which the basilar membrane vibrates
54
volley principle
–Neurons fire in rapid succession
| -one neuron cannot fire more than 1000 times per second but a group of neurons can
55
cochlear nucleus
crossover of auditory signals to contralateral hemisphere
56
medial geniculate nucleus
structure within thalamus responsible for routing of auditory information
57
primary auditory cortex
major perceptual center of the brain involved in perceiving what we hear (primary organization)
•Organized similar to the cochlea (tonotopic map
58
multimodal integration
Combining sensations from different modalities into single integrated perception
-Ex: experience of flavour, combination of taste and sense of smell
59
mcgurk effect
–Occurs in the midbrain by the superior (visual) and inferior (auditory) colliculi
-what we see can influence what we hear
60
sound localization
process of identifying where sounds come from
-if someone on your left says your name, the sound will hit your left ear slightly before and more intensely than your right ear
•Controlled by inferior colliculus
61
mechanoreceptors
detect pressure and touch
62
nociceptors
detect heat and pain
63
acuity
ability to discern to points of pressure
- two point threshold test
- more sensitive regions detect that there are two separate points of pressure being applied as opposed to less sensitive regions that cannot identify these two points
64
haptics/haptic perception
active, exploratory aspect of touch sensation and perception
65
tactile agnosia
a person is unable to recognize objects by their haptic perception, these people struggle to identify simple shapes by only touching them if they cannot see them
66
kinesthesis
is our sense of bodily motion and position
- receptors for this sense are found in our joints
- works in conjunction with haptics to grasp and move objects
67
nociception
the activity of the nerve pathways that respond to uncomfortable stimulation
68
gate-control theory
explains our experience of pain as an interaction between nerves that transmit pain messages and those that inhibit these messages
- the cells in the spinal cord regulate how much pain actually reach our brain
- stimulation from the small fibres makes us experience pain (nociceptors) and the large fibres help reduce pain (mechanoreceptors)
- ex: rubbing your toe after stubbing it helps “close the gates”
69
empathy study
–Participants watched video of actor that they empathized with or did not empathize with
–Rated their pain to heat stimuli while watching actor experience similar pain
-participants reported the level of pain experienced and they reported greater experiences of pain when they had to empathize with the person in the video
-Participants could easily be biasing their behaviour
70
olfactory epithelium
thin layer of cells that are lined by sensory receptors called cilia
71
what is the role of cilia
transmit transduced signal to olfactory bulb via the olfactory tract
72
olfactory system
gives us our sense of smell
| -80% of our sensation of food comes from this system
73
consciousness
a person’s subjective awareness, including thoughts, perceptions, experiences of the world, and self-awareness
74
circadian rythm
internally driven daily cycle of approximately 24 hours, affects psychological processes, determine when we feel hungry and when we are best able to concentrate during the day
75
what 2 things keep us on a 24 hour cycle?
1) Entrainment: synchronization between biological rhythms and external cues (light, temperature, clock)
2) Endogenous rhythms: biological rhythms generated by our body that are independent of light
- people typically have a 24/25 hour sleep cycle even without sunlight
76
beta waves
awake
77
alpha waves
drowsy state; loss of attention
78
explain what happens during stage 1 of our sleep cycle
breathing, heart rate and blood pressure decrease
79
explain what happens in stage 2 of our sleep cycle
become less responsive to external stimuli; sporadic brain activity (useful for memory storage)
-approximately 20 mins
80
explain what happens during stages 3-4 of our sleep cycle
brain activity slows; difficult to wake
81
REM sleep
stage of sleep characterized by quickening brain waves, deep relaxation, inhibited body movement, and rapid eye movements (REM)
82
how long is the average sleep cycle?
90-100 minutes
83
later REM sleep cycles can be from ___-___ minutes long
40-60
84
restore and repair hypothesis
the body needs to restore energy levels and repair any wear and tear on the body from the day’s activities
-this theory suggests that we sleep more after long hard days but that is not the case
85
preserve and protect hypothesis
suggests that sleep preserves energy and protects the individual organism from harm
–Sleep differences between predator and prey species
-we tend to sleep when we are most at risk from predators
86
sleep displacement
occurs when an individual is prevented from sleeping at the normal time
ex: jetlag
87
manifest dream content
the images and story lines that we dream about
88
latent content
the actual symbolic meaning of a dream built on suppressed sexual or aggressive urges
89
activation-synthesis hypothesis (dreams)
suggests that dreams arise from brain activity originating from bursts of excitatory messages arising from the brainstem
-dreams are entirely random
90
why is activation-synthesis hypothesis an incomplete model of dreaming?
-patients with damage to their brainstem still dream, so this seems to be an incomplete model of dreaming
91
problem-solving theory (dreams)
| -fast forward playback
thoughts and concerns are continuous from waking to sleeping, and that dreams may function to facilitate finding solutions to problems encountered while awake
-dreams are not random but are for processing problems
fast forward playback: the cells that were active while we were learning new skills are active when we are asleep but in a fast forward kind of motion
92
does REM sleep affect all memory?
–Affects learning of complex tasks and problems
–Late REM phases especially important for learning
-not all memory is affected by REM sleep
-learning more complicated tasks are associated with REM sleep
93
onset insomnia
difficulty falling asleep
- measured by your tiredness and not the amount of hours of sleep you get
- affects 10% of the population
94
maintenance insomnia
difficulty falling back asleep
95
terminal insomnia
waking up too early
96
primary insomnia
due to internal source (ex: worrying)
97
secondary insomnia
result of other disorders (depression, back pain, drugs)
98
nightmares
particularly vivid and disturbing dreams that occur during REM sleep
-nightmares are abnormal dreams, not everyone recalls them
99
night terrors
intense bouts of panic and arousal that awaken the individual, typically in a heightened emotional state
-1% of adults and ⅙ % of children
•NREM sleep
•Intense panic and arousal
100
sleep apnea
temporary inability to breathe during sleep
•Airway becomes obstructed
•Damage to medulla
101
narcolepsy
-a disorder in which a person experiences extreme daytime sleepiness and even sleep attacks
•Few seconds to a few minutes
•Immediately into REM sleep
•Lack of brain cells that produce orexin
102
hypnosis
a procedure of inducing a heightened state of suggestibility
103
what are the 3 kinds of hypnotic suggestions?
* Ideomotor: actions to be performed
* Challenge: actions not to be performed
* Cognitive-perceptual: prompt remembering/forgetting or altered perceptions
104
theories of hypnosis:
| dissociation theory
explains hypnosis as a unique state in which consciousness is divided into two parts: an observer and a hidden observer
•Driving on “Autopilot”
105
theories of hypnosis:
| social-cognitive theory
emphasizes the degree to which beliefs and expectations contribute to increased suggestibility
•Conform to expectations
106
restless leg syndrome
persistent feeling of discomfort in the legs and the urge to continuously shift them into different positions
107
REM behavior disorder
act out dreams due to failure to inhibit motor signals
108
somnambulism (sleep walking)
a disorder that involves wandering and performing other activities while asleep
109
when might be a good time to use hypnosis?
```
1) medical treatment
•Medical treatments
•Pain relief
2) Hypnosis originally used to recover memories
• Lead to recovery of false memories
-evidence cannot be used in court
```
110
brain death
condition in which the brain, specifically including the brain stem, no
longer functions
•No potential for recovery
111
coma
a state marked by complete loss of consciousness
•Body is still aside from minor twitches
•No pupillary response
112
persistent vegetative state (PVS)
a state of minimal to no consciousness
•Eyes open but do not track movement
•Normal sleep cycles
•Best hope for recovery before 6 months
-Some PSV patients show signs of consciousness
•fMRI techniques suggest comprehension of commands and mental imagery
•Misdiagnosis of vegetative state
113
minimally conscious state
disordered state of consciousness marked by the ability to show some behaviours that suggest partial consciousness, even if on an inconsistent basis
•behaviours beyond reflexes
114
locked in syndrome
patient is aware and awake but, because of an inability to move, appears unconscious
•Diminished brain activity as conscious awareness decreases
115
psychoactive drugs
substances that affect thinking, behaviour, perception, and emotion
116
6 short term effects of psychoactive drugs
* Agonistic or antagonistic effects
* Amount of neurotransmitter released at synapse
* Preventing reuptake
* Blocking the receptor
* Binding to the receptor in place of the neurotransmitter
* Promote receptor formation/depletion
117
nucleus accumbens
a prime area of activation when a person engages in pleasurable/rewarding behaviour
118
3 long term effects of psychoactive drugs
- tolerance
- physical dependence
- psychological dependence
119
tolerance
when repeated use of a drug results in a need for a higher dose to get the intended effect
-more common in drugs that are ingested orally
120
tolerance:
- metabolic and cellular tolerance
- Down regulation
–Metabolic and cellular tolerance: reducing the amount of drug that’s available in our blood stream
–Down regulation: changing the number of receptors available to be stimulated
-this is because cells like to maintain homeostasis
121
physical dependence
the need to take a drug to ward off unpleasant physical withdrawal
-ex: frequent coffee drinkers might get headaches if they don’t have their coffee
122
psychological dependence
the need to take a drug to ward off negative emotions
–No physical symptoms
-often people start doing drugs to get temporary relief
123
what type of person is more likely to use and abuse drugs?
people with impulsive personality traits and people that start at a younger age
124
context dependent overdose
this happens when the addict takes a drug in a different environment
125
stimulants: (cocaine, amphetamines, ecstacy (MDMA))
- psychological effects
- chemical effects
- tolerance rate
- dependence rate
–Euphoria, increased energy, lowered inhibitions
–Increased dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine (mood, feelings of reward and energy levels)
–Tolerance develops quickly
–High risk of dependence
126
long term effects of meth:
| physical deterioration and cognitive deterioration
Physical deterioration:
•Hygiene is neglected
•Drug cocktail often includes ingredients such as hydrochloric acid and farm fertilizer
-people get easily addicted to meth
Cognitive deterioration:
•Structural abnormalities in cells of the frontal lobes: results in the difficulty of the executive functions of the frontal lobe (memory, attention)
•Users develop difficulties ignoring irrelevant thoughts
•E.g. Stroop test
127
hallucinogens: (LSD, ketamine, DMT, psilocybin, salvia divinorum)
- psychological effects
- chemical effects
- tolerance rate
- dependence rate
–Experiences range from euphoria to fear, panic, paranoia
–Increased serotonin, blocks glutamate receptors
–Tolerance develops slowly
–Low risk of dependence
128
marijuana:
- psychological effects
- chemical effects
- tolerance rate
- dependence rate
–Euphoria, relaxation, distorted sensory experiences, paranoia
–THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) mimics brain chemicals (anandamide) involved in sleep and memory by binding to cannabinoid receptors
-anandamide: involved in sleep cycle, mood, appetite
–Tolerance develops slowly
–Low risk of dependence
129
marijuana effects on the brain
–Worse memory(short term and long term), attention, and decision-making than controls, motor control
–Altered brain activity compared to controls even when successfully completing tasks
–Distribution of cannabinoid receptors in the brain correspond to cognitive deficits
130
opiates: (morphine, heroin, fentanyl, oxycodone, codeine, opium)
- psychological effects
- chemical effects
- tolerance rate
- dependence rate
–Intense euphoria, pain relief
–Stimulate endorphin receptors: pain relief
–Tolerance develops quickly
–Very high risk of dependence
131
what can be taken as a treatment for opiate dependence?
Methadone as a treatment: takes the edge off the withdrawal symptoms without getting that high
132
sedatives 'downers': (barbiturates & benzodiazepines)
- psychological effects
- chemical effects
- tolerance rate
- dependence rate
–Drowsiness, relaxation, sleep
–Increase GABA activity
–Tolerance develops quickly
–High risk of dependence
133
what's the difference between barbiturates and benzodiazepines?
Barbiturates: fatal overdose, earlier form of sedatives, people take this to try and relax, to get sleep (disrupts REM sleep)
Benzodiazepines: high abuse potential, but they don’t have the same potential of fatal overdose, act on our GABA system, reduces feelings of anxiety and panic
134
alcohol:
- psychological effects
- chemical effects
- tolerance rate
- dependence rate
–Euphoria, relaxation, lowered inhibitions
–Increase GABA activity(depress the central nervous system, impairment in balance and motor coordination), then stimulates endorphin and dopamine receptors
-inhibits the frontal lobes (inhibition lowered)
–Tolerance develops gradually
–Moderate-high risk of dependence
135
biphasic effect of alcohol
2 phases of alcohol in the body (stimulant and depressant)
* Phase 1: initial increase in blood alcohol content
* Phase 2: after about .5%, people start to feel the depressing effects (point of diminishing returns)
136
Learning
is a process by which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of experience
137
cognitive vs associative learning
–Cognitive learning: reading, listening, and taking tests to acquire new knowledge
–Associative learning: pairing of stimuli (pairing holidays with certain smells and heights)
138
classical conditioning
learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus
- all species use classical conditioning to learn
- foundation of learning
- very effective
139
Hebb's rule
“cells that fire together wire together” when a weak connection between neurons is stimulated at the same time as a strong connection, the weak connection is strengthened
140
acquisition phase
initial phase of learning in which a response is established
- neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with unconditioned response (US)
- they need to be paired consistently enough so that the tone is as often predicted as the food
141
extinction phase
the loss or weakening of a CR when a CS and US no longer occur together
142
spontaneous recovery
reoccurrence of a previously extinguished response
| -previous learning is never gone, just become less potent-can be reactivated
143
generalization
process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to a different, though similar stimulus
144
discrimination
occurs when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to a new stimuli similar to the original stimulus
145
conditioned emotional responses
consists of emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific type of object or situation
146
preparedness
refers to the biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli
147
conditioned taste adversion
the acquired dislike or disgust of a food or drink because it was paired with illness
•Often learned in one trial
•New foods are more prone to conditioned taste aversion
148
evaluative conditioning
when one stimulus takes on the emotional ‘valence’(attractiveness) of other stimuli
-ex: propaganda
149
third person effect of evaluative conditioning
people assume that these advertisements are more effective in influencing other people other than themselves
* is learning occurring in our subconscious awareness?
- most likely
150
higher order association
When a CS (conditioned stimulus) functions as though it were a UCS (unconditioned stimulus)
ex: using the bell that was conditioned to make the dog salivate and pairing it with a red light, the red light becoming a conditioned stimulus that results in the same conditioned response
151
operant conditioning
is a type of learning in which behaviour is determined by consequences
- individual operates on the environment before the behavior occurs
- involves voluntary actions (speaking, movements)
- reinforcement is a consequence of the behavior (reinforcing or punishing)
152
Edward Thorndike: puzzle boxes with cats
measured how long it took cats to escape from the puzzle boxes
-after repeated trials the cats were able to escape more rapidly
153
Edward Thorndike: Law of effect
Responses followed by satisfaction will occur again; those not followed by satisfaction will become less likely
154
B.F. Skinner: coined operant conditioning
used operant boxes (Skinner boxes) an area where the stimulus can be presented to an animal and the animal can make a choice
155
reinforcement
a process in which an event or stimulus (reinforcer) that follows a response increases the likelihood of that response occurring again
156
punishment
a process in which an event or stimulus (punisher) decreases the future probability of a response
157
primary reinforcer
consist of reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs (ex: food)
158
secondary reinforcer
consist of reinforcing stimuli that acquire their value through learning (ex: money)
159
dopamine rich structure within our basal ganglia associated with rewards and reinforcement
nucleus accumbens
160
negative reinforcement: avoidance learning
removing the possibility of a stimulus occurring (taking a detour to avoid traffic)
161
negative reinforcement: escape learning
occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already present (being exposed to loud music and covering your ears)
162
the effectiveness of a punishment depends on what 6 things?
* Being understood
* Severity
* Initial punishment level: start out high
* Contiguity: not waiting too long, need to be closely related in time
* Consistency
* Showing appropriate behaviours
163
discriminative stimulus
is a cue or event that indicates a response, that if made, will be reinforced
-Delayed reinforcement reduces strength of stimulus-response pairing
164
shaping
a procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximations of that response
- gradually reinforcing behaviours that resemble the wanted behavior
- step-by-step
165
applied behavior analysis
-closely observing and reinforcing behaviours
•Used with developmental conditions (e.g., autism)
•Used to shape desirable behaviours
166
schedules of reinforcement
rules that determine when reinforcement is available
167
continuous reinforcement
occurs when every response made results in reinforcement
| •Vending machines
168
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
occurs when only a certain number of responses are rewarded, or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available
-VLT’s
169
fixed ratio schedule
reinforcement is delivered adger a specific number of responses have been completed
170
fixed interval schedule
reinforces the first response occurring after a set amount of time passes
-more responses as the time of reward approaches
171
variable interval schedule
the first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time
- fluctuation in the amount of time
- ex: meteor shower
172
variable ratio schedule
the number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average
- very brief pauses after reinforcement
- very effective because it’s unknown when the reward is coming but it’s known that there is a possibility that it is there
173
partial reinforcement effect
organisms conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those under continuous reinforcement
–Problem gambling
174
__________ can form when it is not clear what behavior led to the reward (ex: athletes that have routines before a game)
superstitions
