Chapters 6-9 Flashcards
What are the two states of energy?
Kinetic-movement
Potential- Stored
What is thermodynamics?
Science of energy transformations
uses Kilicalies
What are the two laws of energy?
- Energy can be changed from one form to a second form but not created or destroyed.
- In energy conversions the potential energy of the final state is always less than the potential energy of the initial state
What type of energy do these elements use?
- Heat
- Electrical
- Light
- Sound
- Chemical
- kinetic and potential
- kinetic and potential
- kinetic
- kinetic
- kinetic and potential
If the second law is true, that means?
Some energy is given off during conversions
What is exergonic?
Energy is given off
Potentially the reaction could be spontaneous
What is endergonic reactions?
Requires energy
Must be coupled to an exergonic reation
What is entropy?
The disorder or randomness of a system
Things tend toward greater entropy
What do these things mean?
- H
- Delta H
- G
- Delta G
- T
- Delta S
- Potential energy
- Change in potential energy
- Gives free energy
- Change in gives free energy
- Temperature
- Change in entropy
What does Delta G = Delta H- T Delta S mean?
Change in gives free energy = the change in potential energy minus temperature and change in entropy.
What happens in every reaction?
Some energy is lost to entropy, increasing it
What are enzymes needed for?
Metabolism
What are synthetic reactions?
Anabolism
Endergonic
What are breakdown reactions?
Catabolism
Exergonic
What is the structure of enzymes?
- Globular
- protein
- three structures
- active site
What are the three main structures of an enzyme?
- Primary- order of amino structure
- Secondary- how it coils in on itself
- Third- how it forms a globe like shape
What is the enzyme active site?
where the substrate attaches
What is a biological catalyst?
- Speed up reaction
- not used up in reaction
- very specific in what they do
- many different types
What is a control site of the enzyme?
- called allosteric site
- changes it to go faster or slower
- allosteric inhibitor
- feedback inhibition
- end-product inhibition
What are coenzymes (cofactors)?
- organic molecules
- carries electrons
Where are enzymes?
EVERYWHERE
How are enzymes arranged?
in groups
Are all biological catalysts made of protein?
No some are RNA ACT as catalysts called ribozymes
What is ATP?
Energy currency of the cell
the T means Tri
What is photosynthesis?
The ability to make food in the presence of sunlight/artificial light.
The process by which the energy of light is used to fix or reduce CO2 into organic compounds
What is an autotroph?
- self feeders
- they do photosynthesis
- includes plants, algae/protista, and some bacteria
What is an heterotrph?
non self feeders
do not use Photosynthesis
includes animals, some bacteria, fungi, and some protists
What is the chemical formula for photosynthesis?
6CO2+12H2O + light -> C6H12O6 (glucose) +6 H2O + 6O2
Carbon is reduced
What is the function of photosynthesis?
To make glucose/sugar
How much photosynthesis occurs on land compared to the ocean?
A bit under 50% happens on land. A bit over 50% happens in the oceans
What is the overall procedure of photosynthesis?
- Capture sun’s energy
- make ATP and NADPH
- Use ATP and NADPH to make sugar
Where does photosynthesis occur?
in the green parts of plants
What is the general leaf stucture?
- Top= upper epidermis- also called cuticle
- Bottom= lower epidermis- contains stoma
- inside= mesophyll
What is the structure of the mesophyllf?
- contains 1 or more rows of vertical cells called Palisade mesophyll (photosynthesis happens mostly here)
- Below are cells arranged in spongy formation called spongy mesophyll (somewhat photosynthesis)
- Veins contain conducting cells and protective cells
What cells bring molecules up and which ones bring them down in a leaf?
xylem- up
phloem- down
What is the structure of a thylakoid?
individual sacks inside the chloroplast. contain photosystems and photosynthesis happens here.
Is light necessary in all parts of photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is a 2-part process. Light-dependent and light-independent reactions
What is light-dependent reactions?
Directly dependent on light
using sun’s energy to make ATP and NADPH
What are light-independent reactions?
Use ATP and NADPH to make sugar
chemical reactions
also called the calvin cycle
What is light?
radiant energy from the sun. Happens in waves and particles. The light energy particles are called photons. The longer the wave, the less energetic the photon is
What are the kinds of photosynthetic pigments?
Chlorophyll- green
Carotenoids- yellow/oranges
Phycobiloproteins- Red/Blue
What is Chlorophyll?
Main pigment in thylakoid membranes and in photosystems.
Three kinds. Chlorophyll A main pigment. Chlorophyll B and Chlorophyll C are accessory pigments
What is the chemical equation for light dependent reactions?
H2O+NADP+ADP+P->light-> NADPH+O2+ATP
What is ATP synthase?
Electron movement cause proton accumulation in thylosac which cased ATP synthesis.
shows up in chloroplast and mitochondria called chemiosmosis
What are light-independent reactions?
use ATP+NADPH to make sugar
happens in stroma
called calvin cycle
What is the Calvin cycle?
3 CO2->3-5C sugars (RuBP) receive -> 6-3C (PGA)-> energizing by 6ATP and broken down to 6ADP+6P -> 6-3C-> splitting to 6 NADPH, 6NADP+, 6-3C (G3P) -> 1 G3P leaves-> glucose. 5-3C goes and reorganizes to 3-5C using 3 ATP
What are C3 plants?
Light dependent and go through the Calvin Cycle
What is photorespiration?
Rubisco enzyme is slow but also can work backwards and destroy sugar
happens when it is hot
Why does photorespiration happens when it is hot?
Close stomata, carbon dioxide will be used up and concentration goes down.
What are C4 plants?
- light dependent reactions
- go through calvin cycle
- also have a C4 enzyme (makes it better)
- has a delivery system for Calvin cycle
- CO2 is picked up in one place and used somewhere else
What is used in the C4 cycle and is more expensive to use?
ATP
What is PEP carboxylase?
- No photorespiration
- more expensive
- makes sugar even if the stomata are closed a lot
What are examples of C4 plants?
- Corn
- Sugarcane
- Crabgrass
What is ATP used for?
Movement
drive endergonic reactions
What is the formula for Cellular Aerobic Respiration?
C6H12O6 (glucose)+6O2->32 ATP 6CO2+H2O
What type of reaction is Anabolic?
Endergonic
What type of reaction is Catabolic reaction?
Exergonic
How are Catabolic and anabolic reactions related?
Catabolic reactions provide energy for the anabolic reactions
What is glycolysis?
Splitting of sugar
Where does glycolysis happen?
In the cytoplasm
not officially cellular aerobic respiration
Where does aerobic respiration happen?
Mitochondria
What is the process of glycolysis?
glucose->2-3C (2 pyruvate). Gets 4 ATP + 2 NADH’s (electron carrier). Cell uses 2 ATP but receives 4 ATP + 2 NADH
What is the process of aerobic respiration?
two parts
pyruvate -> 2C+1C.
2C-> 1C+1C.
Where does the oxidation of pyruvate happen?
in mitochondria
How is a pyruvate oxidized?
2 pyruvate (2-3C) -> 2 coenzyme A-> 2-3C (acetyl group) +2-1C (CO2)
What is the process of the Krebs Cycle?
Acetyl+Coenzyme A -> 4C -> 6C -> NADH +CO2 (leaves) -> 5C -> 4C -> ATP -> 4C -> repeats to beginning -> FADH2 + NADH
What is an electron transport chain?
A series of membrane bound electron carriers foubnd in the inner membrane
How do electrons move in an electron transport chain?
Move to oxygen in the end
-make water
What is the Chemiosmosis theory?
That in the inner membrane space the PH is acidic
What is Fermentation?
when low energy electrons are taken by organic molecules
What is fermentation called in animal cells?
lactic acid
How are signals received between two cells?
By receptor proteins
and in three stages
Where is receptor proteins located?
either in the cell or in the cell membrane/plasma membrane
What are the three stages involved in cell signaling?
- Signal is received by protein, signal attaches to receptor.
- signal transduction, translation of the signal into a response
- response
Where does the signal received by cells stop?
At the protein, though it provides chemical information to continue to the end
What are the four types of signaling?
- Paracrine
- endocrine
- Synaptic
- Direct
What is paracrine signaling?
- local
- cells sends to a cell close by
- Ex. Embryo
What is endocrine signaling?
- much further
- distant cells
- hormones are used
- travels through blood vessels
What is synaptic signaling?
- nerve cells
- nerve to another cell
What is direct contact signaling?
- touching cells
- uses gap junction
What must the signal be to be received by an intracellular receptor?
lipid soluble
ex. ligand
How to intracellular receptors act?
as gene regulator
- turns on genes
- regulates steroid hormones
What type of signals are received on the cell surface?
Not lipid soluble
What kind of receptors are on the cell surface?
Enzyme- Kinase (adds a phosphate group)
Chemically gated ion receptors- channel through which ions move
Gene protein coupled receptors- signal binding site on outside and gene protein binding site on inside
What is the different secondary messengers in cells?
Ions or smaller molecules
What are chromosomes made of?
Chromatin. 40% DNA. 60% protein
What happens to DNA during cell division?
all DNA is condensed
What are the two stages DNA is in when the cell is not dividing?
Some DNA is permanently condensed (Heterochromatin) . Much of it is un-condensed (euchromatin)
What is the structure chromosomes?
has two halves- 2 sister chromatids
centromere is the section that is held together
has cohesion protein holds the chromatids together
kinetochores are there to attached microtubulars when needed
What is the cell cycle?
a process of growth and division of cells
What are the 5 phases of the cell cycle?
Gap phase 1 (G1) DNA synthesis (S) Gap phase 2 (G2) Mitosis Cytokinesis
What is G1?
Cell grows here
What is S?
DNA replicates and makes anew molecule
What is G2?
more stuff is made
What is mitosis?
Division of 1 nucleus into 2 nuclei
What is cytokinesis?
division of 1 cell into 2 cells
