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Biology 191 > Chapters 10-16 > Flashcards

Chapters 10-16 Flashcards

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0
Q

Is mitosis continuous?

A

yes

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1
Q

What is mitosis?

A

the division of 1 nucleus into 2 nuclei

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2
Q

What are the four phases of mitosis?

A

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

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3
Q

What happens during prophase?

A

chromosomes appear and condense
membrane around the nucleus disappears
microtubulars appears

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4
Q

What happens during metaphase?

A

Chromosomes are lined up in center of the cell

They get attached to microtubules

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5
Q

What happens during anaphase?

A

Sister chromatids separate by microtubulars

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6
Q

What happens during telophase?

A

Chromosomes begin to disappear

nuclear membrae appears

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7
Q

What is Cytokinesis?

A

The division of one cell into 2

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8
Q

How does cytokinesis work in plant cells?

A

A cell plate is placed in the middle of the cell to divide it

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9
Q

How is a cell plate formed?

A

vesicles are positioned by microtubulars and slowly become a solid mass

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10
Q

How does cytokinesis work in animals?

A

Actin filaments pinch the cell in at the middle until it splits.

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11
Q

WHat are the 3 check points in the cell cycle?

A

G1/S checkpoint
G2/M checkpoint
Spindle Checkpoint

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12
Q

What is checked at the G1/S checkpoint

A

Checks the size and that the cell has enough nutrients

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13
Q

What is checked at the G2/M checkpoint?

A

Is the DNA ok?

Is the replication complete

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14
Q

What happens if there is a problem at G2/M checkpoint?

A

DNA tries to get repaired. If not then the cell commits suicide AKA apotosis

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15
Q

What is checked at teh spindle checkpoint?

A

Are the microtubulars attached correctly?

Are the chromosomes in proper position?

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16
Q

What two proteins complete cell control on a molecular basis?

A

Cyclin Dependent Protein Kinases (CDK)

Cyclins

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17
Q

How do most organisms reproduce?

A

sexually

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18
Q

What two steps do organisms who reproduce sexually alternate between?

A

Meiosis and syngany

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19
Q

What is meiosis?

A

a reduction division in chromosome number

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20
Q

What is syngany?

A

fertilization. Fusion of 2 gametes, thus doubling chromosome number

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21
Q

Who first observed how sexual reproduction?

A

Van Beneden

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22
Q

What does diploid mean?

A

two copies of chromosomes

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23
Q

What does haploid mean?

A

one copy of chromosomes

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24
Q

What is a 2n cell called?

A

a zygote

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25
Q

What are the three life cycles?

A

Diploid life cycle, haploid life cycle, Alternative of Generation life cycle

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26
Q

What species goes through the diploid life cycle?

A

animals

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27
Q

What is the diploid life cycle?

A

2n organism -> gametes/n (meiosis happens) -> gamete + gamete -> 2n zygote (fertilization) -> zygote grows through mitosis into 2n organism

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28
Q

What species goes through the haploid life cycle?

A

Fungi and many algae

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29
Q

What is the haploid life cycle?

A

n organism -> gametes/n (mitosis is used) -> gamete + gamete = 2n zygote (fertilization) -> 2n = 4n spores (meiosis) -> n spores grow back to n organism (mitosis)

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30
Q

What does a gamete need in order to grow?

A

another gamete

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31
Q

What does a spore need to grow?

A

nothing, it can and does on its own

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32
Q

What species goes through the Alternative of Generation life cycle?

A

all plants and some algae

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33
Q

What are the two generations in the alternative generation life cycle?

A

Gametophyte and sporophyte

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34
Q

What is the gametophyte generation work?

A

n organisms -> n gametes (mitosis -> gamete + gamete = 2n zygote (fertilization) -> grows via mitosis -> makes a 2n organism -> n spores (meiosis) -> grows to n organisms

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35
Q

How does the sporophyte generation work?

A

Makes spores

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36
Q

What are the 8 stages in meiosis?

A

prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, telophase1, prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase 2 telophase 2

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37
Q

What happens in prophase 1?

A 
chromosomes appear (condense)
Homologous chromosomes pair with each other
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38
Q

What is a tetrad?

A

a pair of homologous chromosomes

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39
Q

When does crossing over happen?

A

prophase 1

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40
Q

What is crossing over?

A

certain DNA is crossed over and breaks off and exchanges

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41
Q

What happens in metaphase 1?

A

homologous pairs line up

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42
Q

What happens in anaphase 1?

A

homologous chromosomes separate

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43
Q

What happens in telophase 1?

A

2n cells are created

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44
Q

What happens in prophase 2?

A

chromosomes appear

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45
Q

What happens in anaphase 2?

A

sister chromatids separate

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46
Q

What happens in telophase 2?

A

4n cells are created

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47
Q

What are the differences of mitosis and meiosis?

A 
Mitosis has:
2 cells
1 division
2n resulting chromosome number
Meiosis has:
4 cells
2 divison
paring of homologous chromosomes
tetrads
crossing over
and the resulting chromosome number is n
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48
Q

What are the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction?

A

Asexual- no variability produced, often a back up when sexual reproduction fails, some do this and sexual reproduction.
Sexual- variability, more expensive and more chances of failing, most organisms.

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49
Q

Who is Gregor Mendel?

A

Father of all genetics, Austrian monk, 1822-1844, studied math and science,

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50
Q

What did Mendel do his research on?

A

Peas

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51
Q

Why was Mendel successful?

A

Brilliant, trained in math, trained in scientific method, chose pea plants.

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52
Q

Why did Mendel choose pea plants?

A

Had a short generation, small, they could cross pollinate + sell pollinate

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53
Q

What does F1 generation mean?

A

Filial generation (or offspring)

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54
Q

What is a gene?

A

Holds information to make protein, made of DNA, helps control a particular trait, found at a particular location on the chromosome

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55
Q

What is an allele?

A

Alternative form of a gene

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56
Q

What is Locus?

A

Position of a gene on a chromosome

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57
Q

What is the allele for a homozygous Dominate?

A

RR

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58
Q

What are the alleles for a heterozygous?

A

Rr

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59
Q

What are the alleles for a homozygous recessive?

A

rr

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60
Q

What is a genotype?

A

Genetic information of a human

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61
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

physical appearance of organisms

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62
Q

What is a monohybrid cross?

A

When you watch one trait through generations

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63
Q

What is a dihybrid cross?

A

When you watch multiple traits at a time in generations

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64
Q

What is Mendel’s second law (law of independent assortment)

A

pairs of factors separate independently of each other

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65
Q

What are some examples where Mendel’s laws are not observed?

A 
Incomplete dominance
Environmental affect
Pleiotropy
Epistases
Continuous variation
Codominant alleles
DNA in chloroplast in mitochondria
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66
Q

What is incomplete dominance?

A

When the heterozygote is intermediate between the homozygote

EX- in some flowers the colors get mixed

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67
Q

What is pleiotropy?

A

One allele has more than on effect on phenotype

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68
Q

What is Epistasis?

A

When one combination of genes has a dominant effect over other combinations that is a nonallelic gene

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69
Q

What is continuous variation?

A

Many genes affect a trait

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70
Q

What are codominant alleles?

A

more than one allele that is dominant

EX ABO blood types

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71
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

visual array of what your chromosomes look like

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72
Q

How do errors in chromosome numbers happen?

A

happens because of errors in meiosis

73
Q

What is aneuploid?

A

When the chromosome number is wrong, like one to many or one to few

74
Q

What is nondisjunction?

A

the improper separation of chromatids or chromosomes

75
Q

What are genetic disorders?

A

When a condition is genetically caused, can be observable

76
Q

What is a carrier?

A

a person heterozygous for a condition

77
Q

What are some genetic disorders caused by dominant alleles?

A

Polydactyly- having extra fingers or toes

Huntington’s disease- brain tissue breaks down

78
Q

What are some genetic disorders that are caused by recessive alleles?

A

Cystic fibrous

Tay-sachs disease- lysosomal storage disease

79
Q

What allele is the most common to carrier a genetic disorder?

A

recessive

80
Q

What is amniocentesis?

A

When you pull DNA from a fetus and look at karyotype, metabolic and test for some specific genes

81
Q

What is the “human gene mutation database”?

A

a catalog of mutant alleles that produce clinical symptoms. over 85000

82
Q

The closer a gene is to another on the chromosome, the more likely it will….?

A

travel together during crossing over

83
Q

The closer two genes on a chromosome are, the more…..?

A

tightly linked they are

84
Q

The further away two genes on a chromosome are…..?

A

the more loosely linked they are

85
Q

What scientist figured out where genetic information is stored?

A

Hammerling

86
Q

What algae did Hammerling work with?

A

Large-celled marine algae (Acetabularia)

87
Q

What experiments did Hammerling do?

A

Amputation- cut off different areas to see which one will grow. only Foot regrew
Grafting- cut up the plant and crafted a different mid section with a different foot, top half grew in like the foot.

88
Q

What scientist first hypothesize wither it is DNA or protein that holds genetic information?

A

Griffith

89
Q

How did Griffith hypothesize wither genetic information is in DNA or protein?

A

Worked with a pathogen, used different proteins to affect the pathogen and figure out if it still killed or not. Realized that it was in DNA

90
Q

What two scientist did experiments with Bacteriophages?

A

Hershey and Chase

91
Q

What were Hershey and Chase able to find out?

A

Studied bacteria made only of protein and DNA. Radioactivated both parts. Saw that in new generation only the DNA was radioactive still

92
Q

What scientist identified DNA as a chemical?

A

Miescher

93
Q

What scientist figured out DNA was made of nucleotides but felt that the 4 nucleotides were in equal amounts?

A

Levene

94
Q

What was Chargaff’s contribution to the DNA study?

A

Realized that Levene was wrong and the 4 nucleotides are not in equal amounts. Also realized that A=T and C=G

95
Q

Who figured out the 3D structure of molecules using x-ray crystallography?

A

Rosalind Franklin

96
Q

Who are the men who hypothesized how DNA replicates?

A

James Watson and Francis Crick

97
Q

What did Watson and Crick known from past experiments?

A

DNA is made of nucleotides
Long and Helix
C:G= 1:1
A:T= 1:1

98
Q

What certain things did Watson and Crick knew that had to be true of DNA?

A

DNA had to be able to carry lots of traits
DNA had to be able to translate information into protein
DNA had to be able to reproduce
DNA had to be able to make mistakes

99
Q

Why are outside strands called anti-parallel in DNA?

A

Because they go in opposite directions. You have the 5 prime and 3 prime strands

100
Q

When does DNA replicate?

A

interphase (s phase)

101
Q

What is the process of DNA replication according to Watson and Crick’s idea?

A

Unzips
Each nitrogen containing base attracts a new one
each DNA strand is made of an old strand and a new one
Introduced in 1953

102
Q

What two scientist supported Watson and Crick’s idea that DNA is made of one old strand and one new strand?

A

Meselsohn and Stahl

103
Q

How does replication happen?

A

Uses lots of different enzymes

starts at “replication origin”

104
Q

What is DNA polymerase III?

A

Adds nucleotides to new strand of DNA.
Proof reads itself in 3 prime to 5 prime
Can only add nucleotides to an already started chain

105
Q

What enzyme starts DNA polymerase III? and what is it made by?

A

RNA primer and made by primase

106
Q

What does the Helicase do?

A

unwinds the double helix

107
Q

What does the primase do?

A

Synthesizes RNA primer

108
Q

What does the single-strand binding protein do?

A

Stabilizes single-stranded regions

109
Q

What does DNA gyrase do?

A

Relives torque

110
Q

What does DNA polymerase III do?

A

Synthesizes DNA

111
Q

What does DNA polymerase I do?

A

Erases primer and fills gap

112
Q

What does DNA ligase do?

A

Joins the ends of DNA segments; DNA repair

113
Q

What are the 2 different strands of DNA that appear during the replication process?

A

Leading strand- being copied continuously

Lagging strand- copied in segments

114
Q

What are the DNA segments found on the lagging strand called?

A

Okazaki Fragments

115
Q

How are Okazaki Fragments attached?

A

By DNA ligase

116
Q

How is DNA replicated in prokaryotes?

A

Have one circular chromosome
One replication origin per chromosome
Bi-directional- goes in both directions around the circle

117
Q

How is DNA replicated in eukaryotes?

A

Have several linear chromosomes.
Multiple replication origin per chromosome
Bi-directional
Slows down because DNA and histones have to be dismantle

118
Q

What are histones?

A

Protein found in DNA

119
Q

What is a centromere?

A

point of constriction on the chromosome

120
Q

What is a kinetochore?

A

attachment site for microtubulars

121
Q

What happens to the centromere after the S phase?

A

It is replicated, so there are two centromere molecules

122
Q

Does each chromatid have its own set of kinetochore proteins?

A

Yes

123
Q

What do motor proteins do?

A

they aid in the rapid final condensation of the chromosomes

124
Q

What happens in eukaryotic cells during the end of S phase?

A

they undertake an extensive synthesis of tubulin

125
Q

What is Tubulin?

A

the protein that forms microtubules

126
Q

What is aster?

A

happens in animal cells.

Its when microtubules reach towards the plasma membrane

127
Q

What are the two basic mechanisms proposed for the movement of the chromosomes to the cell center?

A
  1. assembly and disassembly of microtubules provides the force to move chromosomes
  2. motor proteins located at kinetochore and poles of the cell pull on microtubules to provide force
128
Q

Where do the chromosomes line up during Metaphase?

A

Metaphase plate

129
Q

What is a polypeptide?

A

Chain of amino acids

130
Q

What is a codon?

A

Three nucleotides that code for an amino acid

131
Q

What is transcription?

A

When DNA goes to mRNA

132
Q

What is mRNA?

A

messenger RNA
carrier of genetic information to the cytoplasm
large molecules- few 100’s to several thousand nucleotides long

133
Q

What main enzyme is involved with transcription?

A

RNA polymerase

134
Q

What is the process for transcription?

A
  • RNA polymerase attaches to promoter cite
  • transcription bubble opens up about 12 nucleotides long
  • inside bubble RNA nucl are added to growing mRNA chain
135
Q

How is mRNA used in prokaryotes?

A

immediately and as is with no modicfications

136
Q

How is mRNA used in eukaryotes?

A

timing can differ, minutes to hours. And there has to be modifications made first

137
Q

What types of modifications are made to mRNA in eukaryotes?

A

Cap, Tail and splicing

138
Q

What is a cap added for on a mRNA?

A

a 5 prime cap is added for protection

139
Q

Why is a tail added to a mRNA in eukaryotes?

A

3 prime poly A tail is added for protection

140
Q

What is exons?

A

Expressed nucleotides on a mRNA sequence

141
Q

What are introns?

A

Intervening nucleotides on a mRNA strand

142
Q

How is splicing done?

A

DNA is in sections, each section alternates between exons and introns
mRNA- introns are clipped out

143
Q

What is translation?

A

making mRNA into a protein

144
Q

what is tRNA?

A

transfer RNA
around 80 nucleotides long
some parts are single stranded, some double
bottom three nucleotides= anticodon
has a particular amino acid attached to its head

145
Q

Where is translation done?

A

ribosomes

146
Q

what is an aminoacyl?

A

an amino acid

147
Q

what is rRNA?

A

ribosomal RNA

ribosomes are made of rRNA and proteins

148
Q

What are the three processes of translation?

A

Initiation
elongation + translocation
termination

149
Q

What are the three spots inside a ribosome that translation occurs in?

A

E, P, A
E= exit
P= peptidyl
A= Aminoacyl (amino acid)

150
Q

What happens in the initiation phase of translation?

A
  • small subunits go into place
  • mRNA goes into place
  • mRNA has a start codon- AUG
  • tRNA appears and attaches. contains amino acid called formyl methionine
151
Q

What happens in the elongation + translocation phase of translation?

A
  • first tRNA moves to P
    -another tRNA moves into A that has an codon that matches
    -first amino acid binds with second
    -first tRNA moves to E and is kicked out
    -Second moves to P
    process starts again
152
Q

What happens in the termination part of the translation?

A

When amino acid chain is finished, and anticodon appears.
no tRNA can bind to it
everything breaks apart

153
Q

How is central dogma different in eukaryotes?

A

post transcriptional modification of primary mRNA
ribosome size
single genes message codes for a single gene

154
Q

How is central dogma different in prokaryotes?

A

ribosome size
group genes
group message

155
Q

What is a group of genes called in prokaryotes?

A

operon

156
Q

What is a mutation?

A

a change in genetic content
some results from a change in gene location
can be positive, negative or neutral

157
Q

What are the three types of mutations?

A

Point mutation, chromosome mutation, change in gene postition

158
Q

What is a point mutation?

A

a mutation that affects 1 to few mucleotides

159
Q

What are the causes of point mutation?

A

mutagens- chemicals, radiation

pairing errors in DNA replication

160
Q

What are the types of point mutation?

A

Base substitution- a nucleotide changes to another
insertion- addition of a nucleotide
deletion- loss of a nucleotide
no nonsense mutation- change to a stop codon
triplet repeat expansion mutation- repeating of a codon in excess

161
Q

What are chromosome mutation?

A

a mutation where larger section of chromosome is affected

162
Q

What are some chromosome mutations?

A

Deletion of chromosome- section is deleted
duplication- section is copied
inversion- section is flipped
translocation- on piece is broken off and attached to another piece

163
Q

What are some change of gene position mutations?

A

Transposition- a section of DNA jumps randomly from one location to another (also called jumping gene)

164
Q

What are the three main causes of mutations?

A

physical damage by ionizing radiation, physical damage byUV light, chemical damage

165
Q

What type of ionizing radiation causes mutation?

A

x-rays and gamma rays

166
Q

How does ionizing radiation create mutation?

A

ionized atoms or molecules damage other things. Also called Free Radicals

167
Q

How does UV light create mutations?

A

gets absorbed by certain nucleotides

creates a thymine dimer (also can be a c nucleotide)

168
Q

How does chemical damage cause mutations?

A

chemicals cause modifications in DNA

169
Q

What are the 6 main things that regulate genes?

A
  • at initiation of transcription
  • processing of primary mRNA transcript (eukaryote)
  • Transport of mature mRNA out of nucleus
  • Half-life of mRNA
  • Protein synthesis
  • Post Translational modifications of protein
170
Q

How are genes regulated at the initiation of transcription?

A

Affects whether RNA polymerase will bind to promoter

-most efficient regulation

171
Q

How are genes regulated at the processing of primary mRNA transcript?

A

uses alternative splicing

172
Q

How are genes regulated at the transport of mature mRNA out of nucleus?

A

only 50% of exons leave nucleus

173
Q

How are genes regulated with the half-life of mRNA?

A

mRNA gets destroyed by small RNA. All interfere, degrade, cut up mRNA

174
Q

How are genes regulated by protein synthesis?

A

Controls wither they are turned on or not

175
Q

How are genes regulated by post translational modifications of protein?

A

Changes genes at very end stopping them. very inefficient

176
Q

Why control gene expression in prokaryotes?

A

Environmental fluctuation effects what gene gets turned on

177
Q

Why control gene expression in eukaryotes?

A

maintain homeostasis
development
right gene must be turned on at right time

178
Q

What is Mendel’s first law?

A

Law of segregation. 2 alleles for a gene are segregated and joined together randomly during fertilization

179
Q

What did Avery, Macleod, and McCarty do?

A

Realized DNA is responsible for transformation

Biology 191 (5 decks)

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