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Biology 141 > Chapters 5-9 COPY > Flashcards

Chapters 5-9 COPY Flashcards

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1
Q

Four Classes of Biological Molecules (Macromolecules)

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleic acids
  • All considered polymers except lipids
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2
Q

Macromolecules

A
  • Large molecules, complex
  • Unique properties that arise from the orderly arrangement of their atoms
  • Polymers=macromolecules
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3
Q

Polymer

A
  • A long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks

- Building blocks= monomers

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4
Q

Enzymes

A

-Specialized molecules that speed up chemical reactions

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5
Q

Dehydration reaction (condensation)

A
  • When two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule
  • Catalytic reaction
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6
Q

Hydrolysis

A
  • How polymers break apart
  • Reverse of dehydration reaction (adds water)
  • Metabolic reaction
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7
Q

Carbohydrates

A
  • Fuel, building material, Carbon source, information (blood ABO)
  • 25% of dry cell mass
  • Sugars and polymers of sugars
    • Simplest= monosaccharides (simple sugars)
    • Polysaccharides= many sugars
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8
Q

Lactose Intolerance

A
  • Lactase= enzyme

- W/o enzyme or lack of, lactose (sugar) cannot be broken down, ferments in large intestine

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9
Q

Chitin

A

-Creates exoskeleton of arthropods

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10
Q

Lipids

A
  • 5% of dry cell mass
  • Not a true polymer
  • Required for membrane, energy, signaling, insulation
  • Hydrophonic
  • Types: fat, phospholipid, steroid
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11
Q

Fats

A
  • Constructed from glycerol and fatty acids
    • Fatty acid= carboxyl group attached to carbon skeleton
    • Glycerol= three carbon alcohol w/ hydroxyl group attached to each carbon
      • Glycerol connects to chain of fatty acids
  • Triacylglycerol: 3 fatty acids joined by glycerol
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12
Q

Saturated Fats

A
  • Solid at room temperature (high melting point)
  • No double bond
  • Bad for health
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13
Q

Unsaturated Fats

A
  • Liquid at room temp (low melting point)
  • Double bond
    • Cis: packed poorly, low melting point (better for u)
    • Trans: packed tightly, high melting point (bad for u)
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14
Q

Lipid Bilayer

A
  • Makes cell membranes
  • One end of phospholipid is polar, other non-polar
    • Hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail
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15
Q

Steroids

A
  • Ring structure: four fused ring
  • Percusor= cholesterol, essential for membrane signaling
    • Too much= bad (atherosclerosis, build up in arteries)
  • Vitamin D and hormone
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16
Q

Nucleic Acid

A
  • 10% dry cell mass
  • Store, transmit, and help express hereditary info
  • Multiple NA= gene–> multiple gene= DNA
  • Polynucleotide made of monomers called nucleotides
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17
Q

Pyrimidines

A

-Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil

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18
Q

Purines

A

-Adenine and Guanine

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19
Q

DNA Structure

A
  • Nucleotides linked by phosphodiester linkage
    • Phosphate group that links two sugars
  • Sequence of bases along a DNA or mRNA= unique to each gene
  • Double helix
  • A w/ T, G w/ C
  • gene–> dna–> chromosome
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20
Q

RNA

A

-Single-stranded
Thymine is replaced by Uracil, so U and A pair
-More variable in form

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21
Q

Proteins

A
  • 50% of dry mass of most cells

- Speed up chemical reactions, defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, and structural support

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22
Q

Enzymatic Proteins

A

-Accelerate chem reactions

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23
Q

Defensive proteins

A

-Protection against disease

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24
Q

Storage proteins

A

-Store amino acids

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25
Q

Transport Proteins

A

-Transport of substances

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26
Q

Hormonal Proteins

A

-Ex: insulin

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27
Q

Receptor proteins

A

-Response of cell to chemical stimuli

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28
Q

Contractile and motor proteins

A

-Movement

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29
Q

Structural proteins

A

-Support

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30
Q

Polypeptides

A
  • Polymers built from amino acids

- Make up proteins

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31
Q

Amino acids

A
  • Organic molecules w/ amino and carboxyl groups
  • R groups/ side chains make them differ in properties
  • Linked by covalent peptide bonds
  • Carboxyl end (C-terminus) and Amino end (N-terminus)
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32
Q

Four levels of Protein Structure

A
  • Primary
  • Secondary
  • Tertiary
  • Quaternary
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33
Q

Primary

A
  • Unique sequence of amino acids
  • Like order of letters in long word (order matters)
  • Determined by inherited genetic info
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34
Q

Secondary

A
  • Consists of coils and folds in polypeptide chain
  • Result from hydrogen bonds between repeating parts of the polypeptide backbone
  • A helix (coil) and B pleated sheet
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35
Q

Tertiary

A
  • Determined by interactions among various side chains ( R groups)
  • Interactions: hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der waals
  • Disulfide bridges= strong covalent bonds that reinforce structure
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36
Q

Quaternary

A
  • Protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains

- Ex: collagen, hemoglobin

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37
Q

What determines protein structure?

A
  • Primary structure, pH, salt concentration, temp, environment
  • Loss of native structure= denaturation
    • Biologically inactive
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38
Q

Cells

A
  • Fundamental units of life
  • Simplest collection of matter that can be alive
  • Studied using microscopes
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39
Q

Light Microscope (LM)

A

-Visible light passed through a specimen and glass lens

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40
Q

Magnification

A

-The ratio of an object’s image size to its real size (due to lens)

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41
Q

Resolution

A

-The measure of the clarity of the image, or the minimum distance between two distinguishable points

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42
Q

Contrast

A

-Visible differences in brightness between parts of the sample (between colors)

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43
Q

Electron microscopes

A
  • Used to study subcellular structures
  • Types: scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) and Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
    • SEMs: Focus beam of electrons onto surface of specimen 3D
    • TEMs: focus beam of electrons through specimen, internal structure
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44
Q

Cell fractionation

A
  • Take cell apart and separate into organelles
  • Uses centrifuge and diff speeds
  • Heaviest is separating using low speed and vice versa
    • Heaviest: Nuclei and cell debris
    • Lightest: Ribosomes
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45
Q

Eukaryotic Cells

A
  • Cells that have a nucleus (DNA) and membrane-enclosed organelles
  • Membranes= lipid bilayer
  • plants of chloroplasts, animals do not
  • Ex: protists, fungi, animals, plants
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46
Q

Prokaryotic Cells

A
  • Cell that does not have membrane-enclosed organelles, only a cell membrane and DNA
  • Ex: Bacteria and Archaea
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47
Q

Nucleus

A
  • Contains the cell’s genes
  • Enclosed by the nuclear envelope (lipid bilayer), separates it from cytoplasm
  • Lined w/ pores (regulate entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus)
  • Nuclear Lamina: maintain its shape
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48
Q

Chromatin

A
  • One DNA molecule in a chromosome

- Condenses to form chromosomes

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49
Q

Nucleolus

A
  • Located within the nucleus

- Site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis

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50
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • Made of rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and protein
  • Carry out protein synthesis in:
    • Cytosol (free ribosomes)
    • Outside ER or nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
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51
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A
  • Biosynthetic factory
  • Continuous w/ nuclear envelope
  • Regions: Smooth ER (no ribosomes) and Rough ER (studded w/ ribosomes)
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52
Q

Smooth ER

A
  • Synthesizes lipids
  • Metabolizes carbohydrates
  • Detoxifies drugs and poisons
  • Stores calcium ions
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53
Q

Rough ER

A
  • Bound ribosomes that secrete glycoproteins
  • Distributes transport vesicles, secretory proteins surrounded by membranes
    • Membrane factory for the cell
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54
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A
  • Shipping and receiving
  • Consists of flattened sacs called cisternae
  • Modifies products of ER
  • Manufactures macromolecules
  • Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
55
Q

Lysosomes

A
  • Digestive compartments
  • Membraneous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules
  • Made by rough ER and transferred to the Golgi for processing
  • clean cell up if messy or broken
56
Q

Vacuoles

A
  • Diverse maintenance compartments
  • Larger version of a vesicle, maintain cell shape and pressure
  • Derived from ER and golgi
  • Types: food, contractile (pump out water from cell), and central (hold organic compounds and water)
57
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • Cellular respiration, metabolic process that uses oxygen and glucose–> ATP
  • Cristae: inner folds, create large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP
  • Mitochondrial matrix does some of the steps of cellular respiration
  • Animal cells
58
Q

Chloroplasts

A
  • Plants, leaves, algae
  • Green pigment= chlorophyll, function for photosynthesis
  • Tylakoid–> granum
59
Q

Peroxisomes

A
  • Oxidative organelles

- Produce hydrogen peroxide and convert to water

60
Q

Endosymbiont Theory

A
  • Early ancestor of eukaryotes engulfed an oxygen-using nonphotosynthetic prokaryote\
  • Engulfed cell formed relationship w/ host cell (endosymbiont)–>mitochondria
  • Same thing happened w/ photosynthetic prokaryote–> chloroplast
  • Plausible due to similarities in mitochondria and chloroplasts
61
Q

Cytoskeleton

A
  • Network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
  • Organizes cell’s structure and activities
  • Composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
  • Vesicles travel along it
  • Interacts w/ motor proteins to produce cell mobility
62
Q

Microtubules

A
  • Thickest fiber
  • Constructed w/ tubulin
  • Function: Shaping the cell, guiding movement of organelles, separating chromosomes during cell division
    • Attach to chromosomes and separate them
  • Grow out from centrosome near nucleus
63
Q

Microfilaments

A
  • Thinnest fiber (actin filament)
  • Support cell’s shape– cortex
  • Cytoplasmic streaming, flow of cytoplasm in cell, is driven by microfilaments
64
Q

Intermediate filaments

A
  • Middle in width of all 3 fibers
  • More permanent cytoskeleton fixtures
  • Fix organelle in place
65
Q

Cilia and Flagella

A
  • Controlled by microtubules

- Share common structure

66
Q

Plant Cell wall

A
  • Protects plant cell
  • Maintains its shape
  • Prevents excess uptake of water
  • Primary: relatively thin and flexible
  • Middle lamella: Thin layer btwn adjacent cells
  • Secondary: Added btwn plasma and primary cell wall
67
Q

Extracellular components

A
  • Help coordinate cellular activities

- Cells synthesize and secrete material that are external to the plasma membrane

68
Q

Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells

A
  • Animal cells= no cell wall
  • Covered by EM
  • Made of collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
  • Binds to receptor proteins in plasma membrane called integrins
  • Communication btwn cells* (mechanical signaling and chemical signaling
  • Influences activity of gene in nucleus
69
Q

Cell Junctions

A
  • Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere, interact, and communicate through physical contact
  • Types: tight, desmosomes, gap
70
Q

Tight cell junction

A

-Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid

71
Q

Desmosomes

A
  • Anchored junctions

- Fasten cells together into strong sheets

72
Q

Gap cell junctions

A
  • Communicating junctions

- Provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

73
Q

Selective Permeability

A
  • Exhibited by the plasma membrane
  • Some substances cross it more easily than others
    • Controlled by transport proteins
74
Q

Amphipathic

A
  • Exhibited by phospholipids in the plasma membrane
  • Hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
    • Hpho: tails. sheltered from water
    • Hphil: heads, exposed to water
75
Q

Fluid Mosaic Model

A
  • The plasma membrane is made of protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids
  • Not randomly distributed
  • Fluid due to weak hydrophobic interactions
    • as temp cools, becomes more solid
    • Membranes rich in unsaturated fatty acids= more fluid than those of saturated
    • decrease hydrophobic interactions–> increase fluidity
76
Q

Membrane Proteins

A
  • Made up of diff proteins, clustered in groups, embedded in a fluid matrix of lipid bilayer
  • Phospholipids form main fabric of membrane
  • Proteins determine the membrane’s function
  • Peripheral: surface of membrane
  • Integral: penetrate hydrophobic core
77
Q

Cell-Surface Membrane Functions

A
  • Transport
  • Enzymatic activity
  • Signal transduction
  • Cell-cell recognition
  • Intercellular joining
  • Attachment to the cytoskeleton and ECM
78
Q

Transportation

A

-Cell must exchange materials with its surroundings

79
Q

Permeability of Lipid Bilayer

A
  • Hydrophobic molecules can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through the membrane
  • Hydrophilic molecules cannot pass easily
80
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A
  • Does not require energy
  • Transport proteins speed up the passive movement of molecules across plasma membrane
    • Allow passage of hydrophilic substances across membrane
    • Channel proteins
    • Carrier proteins
    • Example= water movement through aquaporin
  • Solute moves down its concentration gradient, no energy= passive*
81
Q

Channel Proteins

A
  • Provide corridors that allow specific molecules or ions to cross membrane
  • Ex: aquaporin
  • Ion channels: transport of ions
    • Gated channels: open or close in response to stimulus
82
Q

Carrier Proteins

A
  • Subtle change of shape to bind and transport across membrane
    • Change triggered by binding and releasing of transport molecule
83
Q

Passive Diffusion

A
  • A substance across a membrane w/ no energy used

- Diffusion= the spreading out evenly in space

84
Q

Osmosis

A
  • Osmosis= passive diffusion of water

- Substances diffuse down their concentration gradient (spread evenly)

85
Q

Tonicity

A
  • Ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
  • T of solution depends on its concentration of solutes that cannot cross the membrane
86
Q

Isotonic Solution

A
  • Solute concentration is the same as inside the cell

- No net water movement

87
Q

Hypertonic Solution

A
  • Solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell

- Cell loses water

88
Q

Hypotonic Solution

A
  • Solute concentration is less than inside the cell

- Cell gains water

89
Q

Cells w/o cell walls

A
  • Shrivel in hypertonic solution

- Lyse (Burst) in a hypotonic solution

90
Q

Osmoregulation

A
  • Control of solute concentrations and water balance in cells that do not have rigid walls
  • Ex: contractile vacuole as water pump in paramecium
91
Q

Water balance of cells w/ cell walls

A
  • Help maintain water balance
  • Hypotonic solution and plant cell: turgid/firm, swells until can’t take any more water
  • Isotonic: no net movement, flaccid/limp
  • Hypertonic: plant cell loses water
  • Plasma membrane pulls away from cell wall, plant wilts= plasmolysis
92
Q

Active Transport

A
  • Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against concentration gradient
  • Uses carrier proteins
  • Allows cell to maintain concentration gradients that differ from surroundings
  • Ex: sodium-potassium pump
93
Q

Membrane Potential

A
  • Voltage across membrane

- Created by difference in distribution of charges across membrane

94
Q

Electrochemical Gradient

A
  • Two combined forces
    • Chemical force
    • Electrical force
  • Drive the diffusion of ions across a membrane
95
Q

Electrogenic Pump

A
  • Transport protein the generates voltage across a membrane
  • Ex: sodium-potassium pump, proton pump
  • Helps store energy used for cell work
96
Q

Cotransport

A
  • When active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of other substances
  • Diffusion of an actively transported solute down its gradient w/ transport of a second substance against its concentration gradient
97
Q

Bulk Transportation

A
  • Occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis
  • Small molecules and water enter or leave the cell through the lipid bilayer or via transport proteins
  • Large molecules cross in bulk via vesicles
  • Requires energy
98
Q

Endocytosis

A
  • The cell takes in macromolecule by forming vesicles from plasma membrane
  • Types:
    • Phagocytosis
    • Pinocytosis
    • Receptor-mediated endocytosis
99
Q

Phagocytosis

A
  • Cell engulfs particle in a vacuole (extends plasma membrane)
  • Vacuole fuses w/ lysosome to digest particle
100
Q

Pinocytosis

A

-Molecules dissolved in water droplets are taken up when extracellular fluid is “gulped” into tiny vesicles

101
Q

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

A
  • Binding of specific solutes to receptors triggers vesicle formation
  • Emptied receptors are recycled into plasma membrane
102
Q

Exocytosis

A
  • Transport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse w/ it, and release their contents outside the cell
  • Used by secretory cells
103
Q

Hypercholesterolemia

A
  • R-M endocytosis used to take in cholesterol, carried by particles called low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
  • Missing receptors= cholesterol build up
104
Q

Catabolic vs. Anabolic

A
  • C: creates energy
  • A: uses energy
  • Metabolism= balance of the two
105
Q

Metabolism

A
  • Totality of an organism’s chemical reactions
  • Emergent property of life that arises from interaction between molecules
  • Pathway begins w/ specific molecule and ends w/ product
106
Q

Catabolic Pathways

A
  • Release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds
  • Ex: breaking down of glucose in cellular respiration
107
Q

Anabolic Pathways

A
  • Consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
  • Ex: synthesis of protein from amino acids
108
Q

Bioenergetics

A

-Study of how energy flows through living organisms

109
Q

Energy

A
  • Capacity to cause change
  • Can be converted from one form to another
  • Exists in various forms, some of which can perform work
110
Q

Kinetic Energy

A

-Energy associated with motion

111
Q

Thermal Energy

A
  • Kinetic energy associated w/ random movement of atoms or molecules
  • Heat= thermal energy transfer btwn objects
112
Q

Potential Energy

A

-Energy matter possesses because of its location or structure

113
Q

Chemical Energy

A

-Potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

114
Q

Thermodynamics

A
  • The study of energy transformations
  • Open system: energy and matter transfers
    • Ex: organisms
115
Q

First Law of Thermodynamics

A
  • Conservation of energy
    • Constant, cannot be created or destroyed
    • Transformed and transferred
116
Q

Second Law of Thermodynamics

A

-During energy transfer or transformation, unstable energy is lost as heat

117
Q

Energy Transformation

A
  • Living cells convert energy to heat, more disordered form of energy
  • Spontaneous processes occur w/o energy input (quick or slow)
    • Can only occur if it increases entropy of the universe
    • If decrease entropy, not spontaneous, energy needs to be provided
118
Q

Free Energy Change

A
  • Energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell
  • Delta G= deltaH -TdeltaS
  • G= change in free energy
  • H= change in enthalpy/ total energy
  • T= temp in Kelvin
  • S=Entropy (disorder/ randomness)
119
Q

Exergonic Reaction

A
  • Net release of free energy, spontaneous

- Ex: continuous energy source of the sun

120
Q

Endergonic Reaction

A

-Absorbs free energy from its surrounds, nonspontaneous

121
Q

Closed system vs. Open

A
  • Reactions in closed system eventually react equilibrium and do not work
  • Cells are never in equilibrium, open systems w/ constant flow of materials
    • Life is never in equilibrium
122
Q

Types of work a cell does

A
  • Chemical work: pushing endergonic reactions
  • Transport work: pumping substances against the direction of spontaneous movement
  • Mechanical work: contraction of muscle cells
  • Do work by energy coupling: using exergonic to drive endergonic, mediated by ATP
123
Q

Hydrolysis of ATP

A
  • ATP tails are broken by hydrolysis, releases energy (exergonic), drives endergonic reactions
  • Coupled reactions are exergonic*
124
Q

Catalyst

A
  • Chemical agent that speeds up a reaction w/o being consumed by the reaction
  • Ex: enzyme
125
Q

Activation Energy Barrier

A
  • Initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction (activation energy)
  • The more energy needed, the harder it is to start the reaction (vice versa)
126
Q

Catalysis

A

-Enzymes or other catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy barrier

127
Q

Substrates

A
  • The reactant that an enzyme acts on
  • When enzyme binds w/ in, forms enzyme-substrate complex
    • Converts substrate to product
128
Q

Cofactors and Coenzymes

A
  • Cofactor: Nonprotein enzyme helpers, Inorganic

- Coenzyme= same but organic (vitamins)

129
Q

Competitive Inhibitors

A

-Bind to the active site of an enzyme, compete w/ substrate

130
Q

Noncompetitive Inhibitors

A

-Bind to another part of enzyme, causing it to change shape and make active site less effective

131
Q

Regulation of Enzyme Activity

A
  • Chemical chaos if metabolic pathway is not tightly regulated (products would go to waste)
  • Switch off enzymes or regulate activity so this doesn’t happen
    • Allosteric Regulation
    • Feedback Inhibition
132
Q

Allosteric Regulation

A
  • Inhibit or stimulate enzyme’s activity
  • Occurs when regulatory molecule binds to a receptor protein at one site and affects the function of protein function at another site
  • Activator: makes reaction happen
  • Inhibitor: Enzymes cannot use substrate, no reaction
133
Q

Cooperativity

A
  • Form of allosteric regulation
  • Applifies enzyme activity
  • One substrate molecule primes and enzyme to act on additional substrate molecules more readily
134
Q

Feedback Inhibition

A
  • The end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway
  • End product binds to enzyme, substrate cannot bind and make more product

Biology 141 (9 decks)

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