chapters 3 + 9 Flashcards
1
Q
- loss of structure, shrinkage, reduction in cell number
- gradual decline in effectiveness or vigor due to: disuse, denervation, loss of endocrine stimulation, inadequate nutrition, or ischemia/decreased blood flow
A
atrophy
2
Q
- an increase in cell size and often tissue mass
- can be due to biochemical stress or neurohumoral factors
A
hypertrophy
3
Q
an increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue
A
hyperplasia
4
Q
a reversible change in whcih one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type
A
metaplasia
5
Q
characterized by deranged cell growth of a specific tissue that results in cells that vary in size, shape, and organization
A
dysplasia
6
Q
stressed cells may fill up with…
A
- normal body substances such as lipids, proteins, pigments, carbs, bilirubin, melatonin
- abnormal endogenous substances–metabolic products–glycogen, lipids resulting form inborn errors of metabolism
- abnormal exogenous substances–pigments that cannot be broken down by the cell
7
Q
physical injurious agents
A
trauma, heat, cold, electricity
8
Q
radiation injurious agents
A
ionizing, ultraviolet, nonionizing
9
Q
chemical injurious agents
A
drugs, lead, mercury
10
Q
biological injurious agents
A
bacteria, viruses, parasites
11
Q
nutritional injurious agents
A
imbalances of fats, minerals, vitamins, and amino acids
12
Q
involves the substitution of fibrous connective tissue that cannot be repaired via regeneration
A
scar tissue repair
13
Q
both pathways of apoptosis are carried out by _______, which are present in the cell as procaspases and are activated by the cleavage of an inhibitory portion of their polypeptide chain
A
caspases
14
Q
the ability of tissues to repair damage depends on
A
the body’s ability to replace parenchymal cells and to organize them as they were originally
15
Q
any class of polypeptide immunoregulatiory substances that are secreted by cells, usually of the immune system, that affect other cells
A
cytokine
16
Q
tissue death
A
infarction
17
Q
creates H2S bubbles in the muscle
A
gas gangrene
18
Q
lack of venous flow lets fluid accumulate in tissue (cold, swollen, pulselesss, moist, black, odor)
A
wet gangrene
19
Q
lack of arterial blood supply but venous blood flow can carry fluid out of tissue (dry, skin wrinkles, dark brown/black)
A
dry gangrene
20
Q
when a considerable mass of tissue undergoes necrosis
A
gangrene
21
Q
- cell death in an organ tissue that causes a loss of cell membrane integrity and enzymatic breakdown of cell parts and triggers the inflammatory process
- unregulated cell death caused by injury to cells
- cells swell and rupture causing inflammation
- liquefaction, coagulation, and caseous this
- infarction
A
necrotic cell death
22
Q
a type of necrosis which results in a transformation of the tissue into liquid viscous mass (often associated w/ infectious agents)
A
liquefactive necrosis
23
Q
a type of cell death that occurs when blood flow to cells stops or flows (ischemia) or during infarction; can occur anywhere except for the brain
A
coagulative necrosis
24
Q
a type of cell death that causes tissues to becaome “cheese-like” in appearance (ex: tuberculosis)
A
caseous necrosis
25
the act of enfolding, entangling, or turning inward
involution
26
required to convert amino acids to procollagen, if not sufficient fibroblasts cannot secrete procollagen
vitamin C
27
most injurious agents exert their damaging effects through
* uncontrolled free radical production
* impaired oxygen delivery or utilization
* destructive effects of uncontrolled intracellular calcium release
28
most important factors affecting wound healing (6)
* blood flow/oxygen (most important)
* age
* nutrition--protein, carbs, fats, and vitamins
* immune status
* infection
* presence of foreign bodies
29
major causes of hypercalcemia
* hyperparathyroidism
* primary or secondary to phosphate retention in renal failure
* increased mobilization of calcium from bone as in Paget's disease
* cancer w/ metastatic bone lesions or immobilization
* vitamin D intoxication
30
involves the abnormal tissue deposition of calcium salts, together w/ smaller amounts of iron, magnesium, and other minerals
pathologic calcification
31
* components of calcium deposits derived rom dead or dying cells as well as from the circulation and interstitial fluid
* represents the macroscopic deposition of calcium in injured tissue--occurs in dead/dying tissue
dystrophic calcification
32
occurs in normal tissues as a result of increased serum calcium levels
metastatic calcification
33
34
* cell usually maintains low cytosolic ...
* acts as a second messenger to turn on intracellular enzymes
* can damage the cell
calcium
35
* death receptor independent
* activated by conditions such as DNA damage, ROS, hypoxia, decreased ATP levels, cellular senescence, and activation of the p53 protein by DNA damage
intrinsic pathway of apoptosis
36
* death receptor dependent
* end result includes activation of endonucleases that fragment DNA and cause cell death
* primary signaling molecules: TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, cytokind IL-1 (interleukin-1), LPS (lipopolysaccharide)
extrinsic pathway of apoptosis
37
* chemicals with an unpaired electron in the valence shell
* extremely unstable and reactive
* can react w/ normal cell components
* normally removed from the body by antioxidants
free radicals
38
a type of cell damage that occurs when cells swell due to an influx of water
hydropic change
39
* IR
* microwaves
* laser
* doesn't ionize but creates thermal agitation of biological molecules, i.e., HEAT, burns most common, skin and subQ
non-ionizing radiation injury
40
* dose-related
* mutations in DNA, cancer
* tissue w/ highest mitotic turnover (normal)
ionizing radiation injury
41
42
frequencies ABOVE visible, wavelengths BELOW visible (e.g., UV and above)
ionizing radiation
43
frequencies BELOW visible, wavelengths ABOVE visible), e.g., IR and below
nonionizing radiation
44
* an innate automatic response to cell injury that neutralizes harmful agents, removes damaged and dead tissue, generates new tissue, promotes healing
* cells present include: basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, platelets, neutrophils, monocytes, mast cells, collagen fibers, elastin, fibroblasts, macrophages, proteoglycan filaments
inflammation
45
acute phase response steps (5)
1. change in plasma protein concentration
2. increased RBC sedimentation rate
3. increased WBC and skeletal muscle catabolism
4. fever
5. negative nitrogen balance
45
46
components of granulomas
* lymphocytes
* fibroblasts
* macrophages
* epithelioid cell
* multinucleated giant cell
* fibrous connective tissue
47
basic tissue or element of an organ as distinguished from supporting or CT or elements
parenchyma
48
the supporting matrix of an organ as distinguished from its element
stroma
49
describes the process by which tissue is replaced w/ cells of a similar type or function
regeneration
50
cells that continuously divide and multiply throughout life
labile cells
51
cells that have a long lifespan and divide slowly but can be sstimulated to enter the cell cycle when needed
stabile
52
phases of tissue regeneration
1. inflammatory
2. proliferative
3. remodeling
53
* increased capillary permeability
* diapedesis
* release of vasoactive/inflammatory mediators
* coagulation, fibrin
inflammatory phase of tissue regeneration
54
* organized regeneration
* budding capillaries
* influx of macrophages
* influx of fibroblasts, collagen
proliferative phase of tissue regeneration
55
regenerated tissue function/strength is near, but probably doesn't exceed, original tissue
remodeling phase of tissue regeneration
56
builds on the granulation tissue framework of new vessels and loose extracellular material via
* emigration and proliferation of fibroblasts into the site of injury
* deposition of ECM by these cells
scar formation
56
57
* organized regeneration
* budding capillaries
* influx of macrophages
* influx of fibroblasts, collagen
proliferative phase of tissue regeneration
58
complications to wound healing
* contracture
* adhesions
* dehiscence
* keloids
* proud flesh
59
60
* excess granulation tissue
* can interfere with surface restoration
proud flesh
61
* wound breaking open
* by pressure applied to healing tissues
* common site: abdominal wall--high pressure
dehiscence
62
* excess TGFs
* excess fibroblast production
* common on upper body
keloids
63
* due to extensive damage, collagen displays exaggerated wound contraction
* limits mobility (burns)
* limits lumen of organ
contracture
64
* union of serous membranes
* restricts movement: heart, lung, and digestive
adhesions
65
* barriers to entry
* intact skin
* commensal organisms
* saliva
* mucus
* tears
* chemical substances (lysozyme)
first line of immune defense
66
* non-specific immunity
* antimicrobial substances
* phagocytic WBCs
* inflammatory response
* NK cells
2nd line of immune defense
67
* specific immunity
* T and B cells
3rd line of immune defense
68
granulocytes involved in inflammation
eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils, mast cells
69
agranulocytes involved in inflammation
monocytes --> macrophages, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes --> plasma cells
70
characteristics of inflammation
1. redness
2. swelling
3. pain
4. heat
5. loss of function
71
phases of inflammation
1. vascular phase--exudation
2. cellular phase
3. leukocyte activation and phagocytosis
72
1. extravascular influx of fluid with increased concentration of proteins, salts, and WBCs
2. fluid dilutes injurious chemicals
3. fluid brings antibodies and chemotactic substances to injured area
4. during acute phase, leaked out proteins set up a gradient that pulls water out of plasma and increases blood viscosity to allow clotting and containment of pathogens (cellular phase begins)
vascular phase of inflammation
73
1. adhesion and diapedesis; starts within 1 hr as blood viscosity increases
2. chemotaxis (movement of WBCs because of chemical signals)
3. phagocytosis
cellular phase
## Footnote
due to movement of neutrophils
74
1. opsonization of microbes
2. phagocytosis
leukocyte activation and phagocytosis
75
stages of tissue repair (2)
1. replacement of destroyed tissue w/ scar tissue (collagen), which fills in lesion and restores tensile strength, but cannot carry out physiological functions of destroyed tissue
2. scar-produced by fibrosis
76
* angiogenesis
* granulation tissue
* formed by fibroblasts and vascular endothelial tissue
* contains new capillaries, proliferating fibroblasts synthesize collagen macrophages
tissue revascularization
77
pink/granular appearance as new blood vessels form
granulation tissue
77
* incision, severing
* duration of phases fairly predictable
primary intention tissue repair
78
* wound edges not closely opposed, process depends on extent of injury and healing environment environment
* more granulation tissue
* wound contraction
second intention tissue repair
79
effects of histamine
* dilates blood vessels
* increase flow
* increase capillary permeability
80
* fractured bone edges correctly positioned = "reduced"
* osteoblasts --> osteoid "soft callus"
* ossification forms "hard callus" (weak)
* remodeling takes place using osteoclasts and osteoblassts
bone healing process
81
epithelial cells are
labile
82
glandular tissue is
stabile
83
remaining tubules go through hypertrophic changes to compensate for nephron loss (tubules regenerate, nephrons do not)
kidneys
84
* permanent
* neuroglia go through reactive gliosis
neuroglia
85
skeletal and cardiac muscle are
permanent
86
smooth muscle is
stabile
