Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Biology 111 > Chapters 12, 13, 14, & 15 > Flashcards

Chapters 12, 13, 14, & 15 Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Scientists credited with discovering the DNA structure; what year?

A

Watson & Crick (1953)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Took strain of bacteria that doesn’t make us sick to make one that does; “cells have some sort of transforming principle, but i don’t know what it is”; what year?

A

Griffith (1928)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Thought transforming principle was DNA; what year?

A

Avery (1944) (Macleod & McCarty)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Convinced scientific world that DNA was the transforming principle; what year?

A

Hershey & Chase (1952)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Hershey & Chase labeled ___ with radioactive label in DNA & labeled ___ with radioactive label in proteins. Which showed up in daughter cells?

A

Phosphates; proteins; phosphates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What bond are the 2 DNA strands connected by?

A

Hydrogen bonds

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Strands in DNA go in opposite directions

A

Directionality

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Hydroxyl group is bound to the #3 Carbon

A

3 prime end

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

has a phosphate bound to the #5 Carbon

A

5 prime end

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

3 prime & 5 prime connect going in opposite directions

A

Anti-parallel

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

When does DNA replication occur?

A

S Phase of Interphase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Every DNA molecule has an old and new strand

A

Semi-conservative

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Figured out that DNA replication was semi-conservative; what year?

A

Meselson & Stahl (1958)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

When a new strand of DNA is being built, new nucleotides can only be added to what end?

A

3 prime end

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

In a DNA molecule, the __ end is the oldest and the __ end is the newest

A

5 prime; 3 prime

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Assembled from 5 prime to 3 prime direction

A

DNA assembly

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What will be used as a template to make new DNA?

A

Old strands (parent strands)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Enzyme that reads the template strand and builds the new strand

A

DNA Polymerase 3

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Protein that binds at the rear of the polymerase that encircles the DNA; holds materials together so replication can occur efficiently

A

DNA sliding clamp

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Parental strands unwind where in bacteria?

A

ORI

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Enzyme that separates 2 strands of DNA so they can replicate; unwinds sections at a time

A

DNA helicase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

“Y Structure” were the 2 strands are separated and where replication begins

A

Replication fork

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Keep the molecule from winding back together immediately

A

Single Stranded Binding Proteins (SSBs)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Enzyme that goes ahead of the replication fork and prevent s overwinding; will nick the DNA to keep it from overwinding and breaking

A

Topoisomerase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Glue-like enzyme that seals breaks in DNA back together to make the strand continuous

A

DNA Ligase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Lays down RNA primer; builds small piece of RNA to start the new DNA strand

A

Primase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Strand of DNA that is being built continuously

A

Leading strand

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Strand of DNA that is being built sections at a time

A

Lagging strand

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Each of the sections of the lagging strand

A

Okazaki fragments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Main polymerase in DNA replication

A

Polymerase 3

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Enzyme that will take out RNA primer and replace it with DNA nucleotides

A

Polymerase 1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Area where the 2 replication forks join together; section that is unwound for replication to occur

A

Replication bubble

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Sequence of nonsense DNA near the ends of chromosomes; they’re not coding for anything/ they are just there; buffer to prevent the loss of important genes

A

Telomere

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Enzyme that builds telomeres at the end of the chromosomes; made of proteins and RNA

A

Telomerase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Telomerase are most active during ___

A

embryonic development

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Germ cells are ___

A

Sex cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

The length of the telomere tells what

A

How many times the cell is supposed to go through division

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What happens to cancer cells’ telomerase?

A

It gets reactivated and the cells divide when they shouldn’t

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What is the most common mistake in DNA replication?

A

When Polymerase 3 adds the wrong nucleotide

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

2 ways that errors can be corrected in DNA replication

A

Proofreading mechanism, DNA repair mechanism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Only occurs if Polymerase 3 realizes it made a mistake immediately; if polymerase sees it attaches wrong nucleotide, it immediately removes it and replaces it with the correct one

A

Proofreading mechanism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Occurs after replication is over; errors are usually identified bc there is a kink or bulge in the DNA;

A

DNA Repair mechanism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Smaller circles of DNA in Bacteria that carry different (& less) genes than the main chromosome

A

Plasmids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Some genes on plasmid have been associated with ___

A

antibiotic resistance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Proteins that go with the DNA and make up the Chromatin; proteins that pack the DNA into the nucleus; also play a role in general DNA activity

A

Histones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Loosely packed chromatin/ DNA

A

Euchromatin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Densely packed chromatin / DNA

A

Heterochromatin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Proteins that are associated with DNA that aren’t histones (Don’t help pack DNA into nucleus) a lot are associated with gene expression

A

Non - histone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

DNA is transcribed into RNA

A

Transcription

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

RNA is translated into a protein

A

Translation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Process of transcription and translation

A

Central Dogma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

___ is directly associated with gene expression

A

Protein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

When the genetic code reads in triplets, it is called a ___

A

Codon

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

How many codons are there?

A

64

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Codons that code for something; how many

A

Sense codons; 61

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Codons that don’t code for something; how many

A

Nonsense codons; 3

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

How many different amino acids are there?

A

20

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

___ & ___ are the only amino acids that have 1 codon

A

Methionine and tryptophan

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Methionine’s code is ___ which is the start codon that begins transcription then translation

A

AUG

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

What are the 3 stop codons?

A

UAA, UAG, UGA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Reads the DNA sequence in transcription

A

RNA polymerase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Control sequence where transcription will begin; everything that’s needed for transcription assembles here

A

Promoter

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Sequence within the promoter where helper proteins bind to start transcription

A

TATA Box

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

Helper proteins that help with transcription

A

TF (Transcription factors)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

___ Builds the new strand of RNA using the DNA strand as a template

A

RNA Polymerase 2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

RNA strand is made from __ to __ direction

A

5’ to 3’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

Template strand is read from __ to __ direction

A

3’ to 5’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Process of getting transcription started

A

Initiation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

What is one of the biggest differences in DNA replication and translation?

A

Don’t have to lay down an RNA primer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

RNA polymerase 2 continues to build the new strand of RNA by adding RNA nucleotides

A

elongation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

RNA Polymerase 2 reach a stop codon; everything disengages

A

Termination

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

___ in bacteria are in DNA to tell it to stop

A

Terminators

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

Transcription occurs in the ____ of eukaryotic cells

A

Nucleus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

Transcription occurs in the ____ of prokaryotic cells

A

Cytoplasm

75
Q

Transcription can also occur where?

A

Mitochondria and chloroplast

76
Q

Transcription in eukaryotic cells transcribes the DNA into ___

A

Pre-mRNA

77
Q

Transcription in prokaryotic cells, the DNA is transcribed into ___

A

mRNA

78
Q

Guanine nucleotide that is facing in reverse position; site ribosomes bind to to start translation

A

5’ cap

79
Q

On the 3’ end, ___ are added

A

50-250 Adenine nucleotides

80
Q

3’ end where Adenine nucleotides are added

A

Poly A Tail

81
Q

Translation occurs where?

A

Cytoplasm with ribosomes

82
Q

What is the purpose of the Poly A Tail?

A

Protect it from enzymes that are in the cytoplasm

83
Q

Removing introns and leaving the eons so there is a continuous strand of exons

A

mRNA splicing

84
Q

What is the difference in pre-mRNA and mRNA?

A

pre contains introns and mRNA doesn’t

85
Q

Splicing occurs where?

A

Nucleus

86
Q

“Work benches” where proteins are made

A

Ribosomes

87
Q

___ is threaded through the ribosome

A

mRNA

88
Q

RNA associated with ribosome

A

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

89
Q

RNA that brings specific amino acids to ribosome to build the protein

A

tRNA (transfer RNA)

90
Q

tRNAs fold into what pattern?

A

Clover leaf

91
Q

Complementary to codons of mRNA

A

Anti-codon at bottom of tRNA

92
Q

tRNA that is carrying an amino acid

A

Aminoacyl tRNA

93
Q

Gets energy when amino acid attaches to tRNA

A

Charged tRNA

94
Q

Order of sites:

A

A site, P site, E site

95
Q

Aminoacyl site; in most cases, most aminoacyl tRNAs in the ribosome enter the this site first

A

A Site

96
Q

___ tRNA goes straight to P site bc it is carrying methionine

A

Initiator

97
Q

Peptidyl site in middle of ribosome that is associated with the protein; has tRNA and growing protein

A

P Site

98
Q

Exit site; rTNA don’t have amino acids attached

A

E Site

99
Q

___ help put everything together; bind to mRNA at start codon for initiation

A

IFs (Initiation factors)

100
Q

__ will be an energy source for initiation

A

GTP

101
Q

Only aminocyl that starts in the P site

A

tRNA

102
Q

In elongation, ___ are aded to the polypeptide one at a time

A

Amino acids

103
Q

Proteins that help with elongation

A

EFs (elongation factors)

104
Q

Amino acid is going to be added to the ___ to form a peptide bond

A

Methianine

105
Q

It is the ____ that moves down the tRNA, not the tRNA

A

Ribosome

106
Q

tRNA in the P site that has at least 2 amino acids in that polypeptide chain

A

Peptidyl tRNA

107
Q

___ is acting as an enzyme catalyzing the reaction forming peptide bonds between amino acids; not made of protein but RNA so it’s not considered a true enzyme

A

Peptidyl transferase

108
Q

Peptidyl transferase is a ___

A

Ribozyme

109
Q

___ are proteins that come in and help everything disengage

A

RFs (Release factors)

110
Q

mRNA that has several ribosomes attached at 1 time going through translation

A

Polysomes

111
Q

___ come in after translation and help the new proteins fold into their conformation / tertiary structure which dictates their function

A

Chaperonins (Chaperone proteins)

112
Q

Changes in DNA that aren’t corrected

A

mutations

113
Q

Mutations caused by wrong nucleotides being attached

A

Based-pair substitutions

114
Q

A sense codon is changed to a different sense codon and it codes for a different amino acid in the protein

A

Missense mutation

115
Q

___ is caused by missense mutation where the amino acid ends up in the protein

A

Sickle cell anemia

116
Q

A Sense codon is changed to a nonsense codon (AKA stop codon) so protein ends up being shorter than it was supposed to

A

Nonsense mutation

117
Q

Sense codon is changed to a different sense codon but they both coded for the same amino acid; protein wasn’t affected and it won’t affect traits but it changes the DNA

A

Silent mutation

118
Q

A base pair is added (or inserted) or deleted in the DNA ; it throws off the entire reading frame

A

Frameshift mutation

119
Q

_____ are segments of DNA that can move around in an organism’s genome

A

TEs (transposable elements)

120
Q

TEs are also called ____

A

jumping genes

121
Q

Who discovered jumping genes?

A

Barbara McClintock

122
Q

A segment of DNA is cut out of 1 location and is inserted in another location

A

Cut and paste transposition

123
Q

A segment of DNA is copied from 1 DNA and put in another

A

Copy and paste transposition

124
Q

Who was considered to be the father of genetics?

A

Gregor Mendel

125
Q

IF the dominant allele is present, it will always be expressed

A

Law of Dominance (Principle of Dominance)

126
Q

Pairs of alleles separate independently into gametes in meiosis

A

Law/Principle of Segregation

127
Q

Actual alleles that are present; genetic makeup

A

Genotype

128
Q

Physical appearance; trait that is expressed

A

Phenotype

129
Q

If alleles are the same

A

Homozygous

130
Q

If alleles are different

A

Heterozygous

131
Q

If 2 alleles are same and recessive

A

Homozygous recessive

132
Q

If 2 alleles are same and dominant

A

Homozygous dominant

133
Q

Looking at 1 trait and crossing 2 heterozygous parents

A

Monohybrid cross

134
Q

Take individual chances and multiply them together

A

Product rule

135
Q

If it is “pure breed” or “true breed” it is ___

A

Homozygous

136
Q

Parents that you start with are called __

A

P Generation (Parental generation)

137
Q

Possible offspring when you cross parents is called ___

A

F1 Generation

138
Q

Made when you cross 2 offspring of the F1 generation

A

F2 Generation

139
Q

every time you work a monohybrid cross, it will be 3:1

A

Phenotypic ratio

140
Q

Every time you work a monohybrid cross, it will be 1:2:1

A

Genotypic ratio

141
Q

When an individual expresses a dominant trait but you need to know its genotype

A

Test cross

142
Q

Looking at 2 traits and both parents are heterozygous for both traits

A

Dihybrid cross

143
Q

You always have a phenotypic ratio of ___ when working a dihybrid cross

A

9:3:3:1

144
Q

Alleles assort independently into gametes

A

Law/Principle of Independent Assortment

145
Q

Who came yo wth the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance?

A

Sutton (1903)

146
Q

Theory where you inherit your genes on chromosomes

A

Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

147
Q

Point where the gene is located on a chromosome

A

Gene locus

148
Q

Genotype is heterozygous individual, but the phenotype is in between the 2 alleles

A

Incomplete dominance

149
Q

Heterozygous individual, but both alleles are expressed at the same time

A

Codominance

150
Q

Type AB Blood is an example of what?

A

Codominance

151
Q

A red flower and white flower mating to make a pink flower is an example of what?

A

Incomplete dominance

152
Q

If a trait has more than 2 alleles in a population

A

Multiple allelism

153
Q

What are the different blood types?

A

Type A, B, AB, and O

154
Q

Type A can be what genotype:

A

IA IA or IA i

155
Q

Type B can be what genotypes:

A

IB IB or IB i

156
Q

Type O is what genotype?

A

ii

157
Q

Type AB is what genotype?

A

IA IB

158
Q

Type ___ is called the universal donor

A

O

159
Q

Type ___ is called the universal recipient

A

AB

160
Q

The white blood cells clump up red blood cells that are the wrong blood type; restricts or stops blood flow through clumps forming so cells are starved of oxygen

A

Agglutination

161
Q

When there are 2 or more genes that affect the same phenotype. Example is color of labradors

A

Epistasis

162
Q

When there are several different genes that contribute to the same trait

A

Polygenic inheritance/quantitative inheritance

163
Q

Often seen in polygenic inheritance; focused on different variations of phenotypes; different shades of eye color, hair color, skin tone

A

Continuous variation

164
Q

One gene affects more than one trait; all the symptoms that go along with a specific illness

A

Pleiotropy

165
Q

Traits are inherited together because the genes are close together on the same chromosome

A

Linked genes

166
Q

Discovered linked genes through fruit flies

A

Morgan (1911)

167
Q

Calculated to determine the distance between 2 genes on a chromosome

A

Recombination frequency

168
Q

Student of Morgan who calculated the recombination frequencies and discovered gene mapping

A

Sturtevant (1911)

169
Q

Only produce 1 type of gamete

A

Homogametic

170
Q

Produces 2 types of gametes

A

Heterogametic

171
Q

Who determines the sex of a child?

A

Dad

172
Q

If a Y chromosome is present, this gene will become active and changes the embryo to start producing testes

A

SRY Gene

173
Q

Traits only carried on X chromosomes and not Y; males are more affected in population because males will only get 1 allele

A

X-Linked traits

174
Q

What are 2 classic examples of X linked traits?

A

Hemophilia and color blindness

175
Q

What is another word for heterozygous?

A

Carrier

176
Q

___ can be carriers of x linked traits, but ___ can’t

A

Females; males

177
Q

Family tree used to trace down traits throughout generations

A

pedigree

178
Q

If an embryo is female, during embryonic development, one of the x chromosomes is randomly chosen and is packaged up by RNA inactivating it

A

X - inactivation/ dosage compensation

179
Q

Chromosomes didn’t separate properly in anaphase

A

nondisjunction

180
Q

Number of sets of chromosomes

A

ploid

181
Q

Has an incorrect amount of chromosomes

A

Aneuploid

182
Q

Has a correct amount of chromosomes

A

Euploid

183
Q

Examples are XXX where daughter inherits mom and dad’s x chromosomes or XXY

A

Sex chromosome nondisjunction

Biology 111 (4 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions