Chapters 12, 13, 14, & 15 Flashcards
1
Q
Scientists credited with discovering the DNA structure; what year?
A
Watson & Crick (1953)
2
Q
Took strain of bacteria that doesn’t make us sick to make one that does; “cells have some sort of transforming principle, but i don’t know what it is”; what year?
A
Griffith (1928)
3
Q
Thought transforming principle was DNA; what year?
A
Avery (1944) (Macleod & McCarty)
4
Q
Convinced scientific world that DNA was the transforming principle; what year?
A
Hershey & Chase (1952)
5
Q
Hershey & Chase labeled ___ with radioactive label in DNA & labeled ___ with radioactive label in proteins. Which showed up in daughter cells?
A
Phosphates; proteins; phosphates
6
Q
What bond are the 2 DNA strands connected by?
A
Hydrogen bonds
7
Q
Strands in DNA go in opposite directions
A
Directionality
8
Q
Hydroxyl group is bound to the #3 Carbon
A
3 prime end
9
Q
has a phosphate bound to the #5 Carbon
A
5 prime end
10
Q
3 prime & 5 prime connect going in opposite directions
A
Anti-parallel
11
Q
When does DNA replication occur?
A
S Phase of Interphase
12
Q
Every DNA molecule has an old and new strand
A
Semi-conservative
13
Q
Figured out that DNA replication was semi-conservative; what year?
A
Meselson & Stahl (1958)
14
Q
When a new strand of DNA is being built, new nucleotides can only be added to what end?
A
3 prime end
15
Q
In a DNA molecule, the __ end is the oldest and the __ end is the newest
A
5 prime; 3 prime
16
Q
Assembled from 5 prime to 3 prime direction
A
DNA assembly
17
Q
What will be used as a template to make new DNA?
A
Old strands (parent strands)
18
Q
Enzyme that reads the template strand and builds the new strand
A
DNA Polymerase 3
19
Q
Protein that binds at the rear of the polymerase that encircles the DNA; holds materials together so replication can occur efficiently
A
DNA sliding clamp
20
Q
Parental strands unwind where in bacteria?
A
ORI
21
Q
Enzyme that separates 2 strands of DNA so they can replicate; unwinds sections at a time
A
DNA helicase
22
Q
“Y Structure” were the 2 strands are separated and where replication begins
A
Replication fork
23
Q
Keep the molecule from winding back together immediately
A
Single Stranded Binding Proteins (SSBs)
24
Q
Enzyme that goes ahead of the replication fork and prevent s overwinding; will nick the DNA to keep it from overwinding and breaking
A
Topoisomerase
25
Glue-like enzyme that seals breaks in DNA back together to make the strand continuous
DNA Ligase
26
Lays down RNA primer; builds small piece of RNA to start the new DNA strand
Primase
27
Strand of DNA that is being built continuously
Leading strand
28
Strand of DNA that is being built sections at a time
Lagging strand
29
Each of the sections of the lagging strand
Okazaki fragments
30
Main polymerase in DNA replication
Polymerase 3
31
Enzyme that will take out RNA primer and replace it with DNA nucleotides
Polymerase 1
32
Area where the 2 replication forks join together; section that is unwound for replication to occur
Replication bubble
33
Sequence of nonsense DNA near the ends of chromosomes; they're not coding for anything/ they are just there; buffer to prevent the loss of important genes
Telomere
34
Enzyme that builds telomeres at the end of the chromosomes; made of proteins and RNA
Telomerase
35
Telomerase are most active during ___
embryonic development
36
Germ cells are ___
Sex cells
37
The length of the telomere tells what
How many times the cell is supposed to go through division
38
What happens to cancer cells' telomerase?
It gets reactivated and the cells divide when they shouldn't
39
What is the most common mistake in DNA replication?
When Polymerase 3 adds the wrong nucleotide
40
2 ways that errors can be corrected in DNA replication
Proofreading mechanism, DNA repair mechanism
41
Only occurs if Polymerase 3 realizes it made a mistake immediately; if polymerase sees it attaches wrong nucleotide, it immediately removes it and replaces it with the correct one
Proofreading mechanism
42
Occurs after replication is over; errors are usually identified bc there is a kink or bulge in the DNA;
DNA Repair mechanism
43
Smaller circles of DNA in Bacteria that carry different (& less) genes than the main chromosome
Plasmids
44
Some genes on plasmid have been associated with ___
antibiotic resistance
45
Proteins that go with the DNA and make up the Chromatin; proteins that pack the DNA into the nucleus; also play a role in general DNA activity
Histones
46
Loosely packed chromatin/ DNA
Euchromatin
47
Densely packed chromatin / DNA
Heterochromatin
48
Proteins that are associated with DNA that aren't histones (Don't help pack DNA into nucleus) a lot are associated with gene expression
Non - histone
49
DNA is transcribed into RNA
Transcription
50
RNA is translated into a protein
Translation
51
Process of transcription and translation
Central Dogma
52
___ is directly associated with gene expression
Protein
53
When the genetic code reads in triplets, it is called a ___
Codon
54
How many codons are there?
64
55
Codons that code for something; how many
Sense codons; 61
56
Codons that don't code for something; how many
Nonsense codons; 3
57
How many different amino acids are there?
20
58
___ & ___ are the only amino acids that have 1 codon
Methionine and tryptophan
59
Methionine's code is ___ which is the start codon that begins transcription then translation
AUG
60
What are the 3 stop codons?
UAA, UAG, UGA
61
Reads the DNA sequence in transcription
RNA polymerase
62
Control sequence where transcription will begin; everything that's needed for transcription assembles here
Promoter
63
Sequence within the promoter where helper proteins bind to start transcription
TATA Box
64
Helper proteins that help with transcription
TF (Transcription factors)
65
___ Builds the new strand of RNA using the DNA strand as a template
RNA Polymerase 2
66
RNA strand is made from __ to __ direction
5' to 3'
67
Template strand is read from __ to __ direction
3' to 5'
68
Process of getting transcription started
Initiation
69
What is one of the biggest differences in DNA replication and translation?
Don't have to lay down an RNA primer
70
RNA polymerase 2 continues to build the new strand of RNA by adding RNA nucleotides
elongation
71
RNA Polymerase 2 reach a stop codon; everything disengages
Termination
72
___ in bacteria are in DNA to tell it to stop
Terminators
73
Transcription occurs in the ____ of eukaryotic cells
Nucleus
74
Transcription occurs in the ____ of prokaryotic cells
Cytoplasm
75
Transcription can also occur where?
Mitochondria and chloroplast
76
Transcription in eukaryotic cells transcribes the DNA into ___
Pre-mRNA
77
Transcription in prokaryotic cells, the DNA is transcribed into ___
mRNA
78
Guanine nucleotide that is facing in reverse position; site ribosomes bind to to start translation
5' cap
79
On the 3' end, ___ are added
50-250 Adenine nucleotides
80
3' end where Adenine nucleotides are added
Poly A Tail
81
Translation occurs where?
Cytoplasm with ribosomes
82
What is the purpose of the Poly A Tail?
Protect it from enzymes that are in the cytoplasm
83
Removing introns and leaving the eons so there is a continuous strand of exons
mRNA splicing
84
What is the difference in pre-mRNA and mRNA?
pre contains introns and mRNA doesn't
85
Splicing occurs where?
Nucleus
86
"Work benches" where proteins are made
Ribosomes
87
___ is threaded through the ribosome
mRNA
88
RNA associated with ribosome
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
89
RNA that brings specific amino acids to ribosome to build the protein
tRNA (transfer RNA)
90
tRNAs fold into what pattern?
Clover leaf
91
Complementary to codons of mRNA
Anti-codon at bottom of tRNA
92
tRNA that is carrying an amino acid
Aminoacyl tRNA
93
Gets energy when amino acid attaches to tRNA
Charged tRNA
94
Order of sites:
A site, P site, E site
95
Aminoacyl site; in most cases, most aminoacyl tRNAs in the ribosome enter the this site first
A Site
96
___ tRNA goes straight to P site bc it is carrying methionine
Initiator
97
Peptidyl site in middle of ribosome that is associated with the protein; has tRNA and growing protein
P Site
98
Exit site; rTNA don't have amino acids attached
E Site
99
___ help put everything together; bind to mRNA at start codon for initiation
IFs (Initiation factors)
100
__ will be an energy source for initiation
GTP
101
Only aminocyl that starts in the P site
tRNA
102
In elongation, ___ are aded to the polypeptide one at a time
Amino acids
103
Proteins that help with elongation
EFs (elongation factors)
104
Amino acid is going to be added to the ___ to form a peptide bond
Methianine
105
It is the ____ that moves down the tRNA, not the tRNA
Ribosome
106
tRNA in the P site that has at least 2 amino acids in that polypeptide chain
Peptidyl tRNA
107
___ is acting as an enzyme catalyzing the reaction forming peptide bonds between amino acids; not made of protein but RNA so it's not considered a true enzyme
Peptidyl transferase
108
Peptidyl transferase is a ___
Ribozyme
109
___ are proteins that come in and help everything disengage
RFs (Release factors)
110
mRNA that has several ribosomes attached at 1 time going through translation
Polysomes
111
___ come in after translation and help the new proteins fold into their conformation / tertiary structure which dictates their function
Chaperonins (Chaperone proteins)
112
Changes in DNA that aren't corrected
mutations
113
Mutations caused by wrong nucleotides being attached
Based-pair substitutions
114
A sense codon is changed to a different sense codon and it codes for a different amino acid in the protein
Missense mutation
115
___ is caused by missense mutation where the amino acid ends up in the protein
Sickle cell anemia
116
A Sense codon is changed to a nonsense codon (AKA stop codon) so protein ends up being shorter than it was supposed to
Nonsense mutation
117
Sense codon is changed to a different sense codon but they both coded for the same amino acid; protein wasn't affected and it won't affect traits but it changes the DNA
Silent mutation
118
A base pair is added (or inserted) or deleted in the DNA ; it throws off the entire reading frame
Frameshift mutation
119
_____ are segments of DNA that can move around in an organism's genome
TEs (transposable elements)
120
TEs are also called ____
jumping genes
121
Who discovered jumping genes?
Barbara McClintock
122
A segment of DNA is cut out of 1 location and is inserted in another location
Cut and paste transposition
123
A segment of DNA is copied from 1 DNA and put in another
Copy and paste transposition
124
Who was considered to be the father of genetics?
Gregor Mendel
125
IF the dominant allele is present, it will always be expressed
Law of Dominance (Principle of Dominance)
126
Pairs of alleles separate independently into gametes in meiosis
Law/Principle of Segregation
127
Actual alleles that are present; genetic makeup
Genotype
128
Physical appearance; trait that is expressed
Phenotype
129
If alleles are the same
Homozygous
130
If alleles are different
Heterozygous
131
If 2 alleles are same and recessive
Homozygous recessive
132
If 2 alleles are same and dominant
Homozygous dominant
133
Looking at 1 trait and crossing 2 heterozygous parents
Monohybrid cross
134
Take individual chances and multiply them together
Product rule
135
If it is "pure breed" or "true breed" it is ___
Homozygous
136
Parents that you start with are called __
P Generation (Parental generation)
137
Possible offspring when you cross parents is called ___
F1 Generation
138
Made when you cross 2 offspring of the F1 generation
F2 Generation
139
every time you work a monohybrid cross, it will be 3:1
Phenotypic ratio
140
Every time you work a monohybrid cross, it will be 1:2:1
Genotypic ratio
141
When an individual expresses a dominant trait but you need to know its genotype
Test cross
142
Looking at 2 traits and both parents are heterozygous for both traits
Dihybrid cross
143
You always have a phenotypic ratio of ___ when working a dihybrid cross
9:3:3:1
144
Alleles assort independently into gametes
Law/Principle of Independent Assortment
145
Who came yo wth the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance?
Sutton (1903)
146
Theory where you inherit your genes on chromosomes
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
147
Point where the gene is located on a chromosome
Gene locus
148
Genotype is heterozygous individual, but the phenotype is in between the 2 alleles
Incomplete dominance
149
Heterozygous individual, but both alleles are expressed at the same time
Codominance
150
Type AB Blood is an example of what?
Codominance
151
A red flower and white flower mating to make a pink flower is an example of what?
Incomplete dominance
152
If a trait has more than 2 alleles in a population
Multiple allelism
153
What are the different blood types?
Type A, B, AB, and O
154
Type A can be what genotype:
IA IA or IA i
155
Type B can be what genotypes:
IB IB or IB i
156
Type O is what genotype?
ii
157
Type AB is what genotype?
IA IB
158
Type ___ is called the universal donor
O
159
Type ___ is called the universal recipient
AB
160
The white blood cells clump up red blood cells that are the wrong blood type; restricts or stops blood flow through clumps forming so cells are starved of oxygen
Agglutination
161
When there are 2 or more genes that affect the same phenotype. Example is color of labradors
Epistasis
162
When there are several different genes that contribute to the same trait
Polygenic inheritance/quantitative inheritance
163
Often seen in polygenic inheritance; focused on different variations of phenotypes; different shades of eye color, hair color, skin tone
Continuous variation
164
One gene affects more than one trait; all the symptoms that go along with a specific illness
Pleiotropy
165
Traits are inherited together because the genes are close together on the same chromosome
Linked genes
166
Discovered linked genes through fruit flies
Morgan (1911)
167
Calculated to determine the distance between 2 genes on a chromosome
Recombination frequency
168
Student of Morgan who calculated the recombination frequencies and discovered gene mapping
Sturtevant (1911)
169
Only produce 1 type of gamete
Homogametic
170
Produces 2 types of gametes
Heterogametic
171
Who determines the sex of a child?
Dad
172
If a Y chromosome is present, this gene will become active and changes the embryo to start producing testes
SRY Gene
173
Traits only carried on X chromosomes and not Y; males are more affected in population because males will only get 1 allele
X-Linked traits
174
What are 2 classic examples of X linked traits?
Hemophilia and color blindness
175
What is another word for heterozygous?
Carrier
176
___ can be carriers of x linked traits, but ___ can't
Females; males
177
Family tree used to trace down traits throughout generations
pedigree
178
If an embryo is female, during embryonic development, one of the x chromosomes is randomly chosen and is packaged up by RNA inactivating it
X - inactivation/ dosage compensation
179
Chromosomes didn't separate properly in anaphase
nondisjunction
180
Number of sets of chromosomes
ploid
181
Has an incorrect amount of chromosomes
Aneuploid
182
Has a correct amount of chromosomes
Euploid
183
Examples are XXX where daughter inherits mom and dad's x chromosomes or XXY
Sex chromosome nondisjunction
