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Biology 111 > Chapter 8, 10, & 11 > Flashcards

Chapter 8, 10, & 11 Flashcards

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1
Q

____ & ____ are constantly cycling on Earth.

A

Respiration and photosynthesis

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2
Q

Something to do with energy or food

A

“troph”

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3
Q

“self feeders”; make their own nutrients

A

autotrophs

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4
Q

“different feeders”; must consume organic material for nutrients

A

Heterotroph

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5
Q

Reaction where we use light; occurs in the thylakoid membrane; Where Oxygen is released

A

Light (dependent) reaction

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6
Q

What is the electron carrier for photosynthesis?

A

NADP+

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7
Q

Reaction that doesn’t require the sun; happens in the stroma of the chloroplast (space around thylakoids); CO2 is converted into sugar

A

Light independent reaction

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8
Q

What scientist discovered the light independent reactions?

A

Calvin

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9
Q

In most plants, most of the photosynthesis occurs where?

A

Leaves

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10
Q

Openings in the upper or lower epidermis are called ____

A

Stoma or stomata

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11
Q

Tissue inside the leaf that is green that contains lots of chloroplast is called ___

A

mesophyll tissue

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12
Q

___ comes through the stoma then ____ exits through the stoma

A

CO2; O2

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13
Q

tightly packed together in the upper epidermis

A

Palisade mesophyll

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14
Q

Loosely packed together with lots of air pockets in the lower epidermis

A

Spongy mesophyll

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15
Q

____ in thylakoids are what capture the sun’s energy

A

Pigments

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16
Q

Main pigment that we focus on in photosynthesis is ____; absorbs red and blue wavelengths but reflects the green wavelengths

A

Chlorophyll

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17
Q

____ tend to reflect orange and yellow pigments

A

Carotenoids

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18
Q

When a pigment traps the sun’s energy:

A

1 - electrons will immediately release that energy as light or heat (fluorescence)
2 - electrons transfer the energy to an electron acceptor
3 - electrons may transfer the energy to a neighboring molecule

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19
Q

P-680 stands for what?

A

P- pigment

680- optimum wavelength

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20
Q

Photosystem 2 has what wavelength?

A

P-680

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21
Q

Photosystem 1 has what wavelength?

A

P-700

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22
Q

Electrons get reenergized when they reach ____

A

Photosystem 1

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23
Q

Water is used in photosynthesis for its energy; it is split at the beginning for its ___ ions

A

electron and hydrogen

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24
Q

The electrons from oxygen enter what?

A

The electron transfer system

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25
Q

Trying to move all the H+ on the inside of the thylakoid is called ____

A

chemiosmosis

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26
Q

Once e- get to primary e- acceptor, some e- will be sent to a Ferredoxin to the right to be picked up by NADP+, but some are sent to Ferredoxin to the left and what will happen to them?

A

They will reenter the electron transfer system

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27
Q

What is it called when the electrons are sent to the ferredoxin to the left?

A

Cyclic electron flow

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28
Q

The point of the cyclic electron flow is to create energy to pump H+ across membrane without creating more ___

A

NADPH

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29
Q

Part 2 of photosynthesis is called ___ or ___ or ____

A

Light independent reaction; calvin cycle; stroma reactions

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30
Q

Energy from step 1 converts CO2 to what?

A

sugar

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31
Q

CO2 comes into the cycle through the ___ to the stroma to begin the Calvin Cycle

A

Stoma or Stomata

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32
Q

___ is the molecule waiting at the beginning of the Calvin Cycle

A

RuBP

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33
Q

CO2 binds to RuBP that creates a fragile 6 Carbon molecule that immediately splits in half to give us two 3 Carbon molecules called ___

A

3PGA

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34
Q

RuBP + CO2 = 2 3PGA

A

Carboxylase

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35
Q

Enzyme that drives the carboxylase reaction

A

Rubisco

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36
Q

Possibly the most important enzyme on earth

A

rubisco

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37
Q

First part of the Calvin cycle is called ___

A

Carbon fixation

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38
Q

____ Pathway is the version most plants use for photosynthesis

A

C3

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39
Q

2nd part of the Calvin Cycle is called ___

A

Reduction

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40
Q

2 3PGA = 2G3P

A

reduction

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41
Q

3rd part of the Calvin Cycle is called ___

A

regeneration

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42
Q

It takes ___ turns of the Calvin Cycle to create Glucose

A

6

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43
Q

For every 1 turn of the Calvin Cycle, it takes __ CO2

A

3

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44
Q

Examples of C3 plants:

A

wheat, rice, barley, tomatoes, potatoes

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45
Q

If rubisco acts as an oxygenase (binds to oxygen instead of carbon)

A

Photorespiration

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46
Q

when photorespiration occurs it what?

A

Cuts the photosynthesis rate in half

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47
Q

Phosphoglycolate is made into a glycol ate then goes to a specialized molecule ____ to be detoxed

A

Peroxisome

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48
Q

___ must leave the chloroplast bc it cannot play a role in the Calvin Cycle

A

glycolate

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49
Q

When is photorespiration most likely to occur?

A

Hot, dry climates

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50
Q

Examples of C4 plants:

A

Corn, sugarcane, crabgrass

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51
Q

In a C4 pathway, light reactions occur where?

A

Mesophyll

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52
Q

The Calvin Cycle in C4 pathway occurs where?

A

Bundle Sheath cell

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53
Q

____ is an enzyme that acts on Carbon in C4 pathway

A

PEP Carboxylase

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54
Q

The first product from the C4 pathway is what?

A

Oxaloacetate

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55
Q

Pathway that occurs in Extremely HOT environments

A

Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM Pathway)

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56
Q

Examples of CAM plants:

A

Cactus, lilies, orchids

57
Q

CAM Pathway occurs where

A

Mesophyll cells

58
Q

At night, CAM plants will keep their stomata ___ and during the day they ____ it

A

open; close

59
Q

When do CAM plants make sugar?

A

During the day

60
Q

Each strand of the chromosomes are called ___

A

sister chromatids

61
Q

Point where sister chromatids come together is the ___

A

centromere

62
Q

On the centromere, there is a group of proteins called the ___

A

kinetochore

63
Q

___ has 2 sets of chromosomes

A

Diploid (2n)

64
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?

A

23 pairs

65
Q

Extracting chromosomes and lining them up in their pairs

A

Karyotype

66
Q

2 chromosomes in that pair are some size and shape; carry same type of genetic for, centromere in same location

A

homologous chromosomes

67
Q

Only chromosomes in our bodies that aren’t homologous are ___

A

23rd pair

68
Q

___ cells only have 1 set of chromosomes

A

haploid

69
Q

Longest phase for all types of cells; preparation phase for division

A

Interphase

70
Q

Growth phase; where the cell decides whether or not it should divide; functions as a cell; If growth factors are present, it will divide

A

G1 Phase

71
Q

If cells never divide again (brain cells) or won’t divide for a long time

A

Go Phase

72
Q

(synthesis) when DNA replication occurs

A

S Phase

73
Q

Last chance to make everything it needs to divide into 2 cells

A

G2 Phase

74
Q

Nuclear division; occurs in Somatic cells

A

M Phase

75
Q

What are examples of Somatic cells?

A

General body cells like skin, heart, and muscle cells

76
Q

Chromatin condenses; Chromosomes begin to appear; Nuclear envelope disappears so DNA can move around; Microtubules are organized into a spindle; Nucleolus may shrink or disappear; Centrioles move to opposite ends of cell like poles;

A

Prophase

77
Q

Spindle finishes forming; nuclear envelope finishes breaking up; some of the microtubules in the spindle will attach to the chromosomes at the kinetochore of the chromosomes

A

Prometaphase

78
Q

All chromosomes line up at the center ( Metaphase plate) of the spindle;

A

Metaphase

79
Q

Enzyme called Separase comes in and breaks up the cohesion force and the centromere splits. Sister chromatids are separated then go to the opposite poles

A

Anaphase

80
Q

Sister chromatids have reached opposite poles; DNA decondenses back into chromatin; nuclear envelope reforms around each set of DNA; Nucleolus comes back; spindle disappears; You end with one cell that has 2 nuclei

A

Telophase

81
Q

Cytoplasmic division (Last step in cell cycle) starts some time in anaphase or telophase

A

Cytokinesis

82
Q

Special proteins in the middle of the cell start moving back and forth contracting to pull the plasma membrane inward; creates a cleavage and moves inward until its completely divided

A

Animal cell cytokinesis

83
Q

Vesicles carry cellulose and materials that make up the cell wall to the center of the cell; when the vesicles line up in the center, they form a cell plate so vesicles start to fuse together; As they fuse, they empty their contents; cell wall is built from the inside out

A

Plant cell Cytokinesis

84
Q

Mitosis is used for what?

A

growth, maintenance, repair

85
Q

Mitosis in bacteria is used for ___

A

asexual reproduction

86
Q

The centrosome is made up of what?

A

Centrioles and microtubules

87
Q

MTOC stands for ___

A

Microtubule organizing center

88
Q

What is the MTOC for animal cells?

A

Centrosome

89
Q

What helps keep the spindle organized in plant cells?

A

MTOCs

90
Q

Where cyclin comes in and checks the cell in general and looks for growth factors

A

G1/S Checkpoint

91
Q

Cyclin checks for proper DNA replication

A

G2/M Checkpoint

92
Q

Any change in DNA

A

Mutation

93
Q

Checks Mitotic spindle before metaphase of nuclear division; checks for proper chromosome attachment to the spindle

A

3rd checkpoint

94
Q

Programmed cell death

A

Apoptosis

95
Q

Enzyme that activates cyclins

A

Enzyme CDK

96
Q

G1/S cyclin binds to ___ somewhere between G1 & S phase transition

A

CDK2

97
Q

S Cyclin binds to __ around S Phase

A

CDK2

98
Q

M Cyclin bins to ___ usually between G2 to M phase transition

A

CDK1

99
Q

Another cell cycle regulation in animal cells; animal cells have specific receptors on their surfaces that recognize that its touching other cells; If receptors tell cell its surrounded by cells all the way around, growth factors won’t show up

A

Contact inhibition

100
Q

Process in which bacteria divide

A

Binary fission

101
Q

Point where the bacterial chromosome starts to replicate

A

Origin of replication (ORI)

102
Q

What is the longest part of binary fission?

A

DNA replication

103
Q

If a bacteria is in its optimum environment, it can divide up to every __ minutes

A

20

104
Q

Purpose of the cycle is to produce gametes

A

Meiosis

105
Q

What are gametes?

A

Egg and sperm cells

106
Q

What makes us different?

A

Genetic variation

107
Q

How many chromosomes do egg and sperm cells have?

A

23

108
Q

Sex cells are where ?

A

gonads

109
Q

Gonads in female

A

Ovaries

110
Q

Gonads in male

A

Testes

111
Q

Alternate versions of the same gene

A

allele

112
Q

Same type of chromosomes; same size, shape, carry same genetic info

A

homologous chromosomes

113
Q

In between Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2; abbreviated interphase without DNA replication; chance for cells to make anything before they divide again

A

Interkinesis

114
Q

Chromatin condenses; Nuclear envelope disappears; Microtubules are organized into a spindle; homologous chromosomes randomly swap alleles

A

Prophase I of Meiosis

115
Q

Crossing over homologous chromosomes is how we get ___

A

Genetic recombination

116
Q

Homologous chromosomes get close to teacher so they can swap alleles

A

Synapse

117
Q

Site where crossing over occurs

A

Chiasma/chiasmata

118
Q

Chromosomes line up in the center plate & form a tetrad

A

Metaphase I of Meiosis

119
Q

2 homologous pairs lining up in Metaphase

A

Tetrad

120
Q

Centromere doesn’t split; sister chromatids stay together; homologous pairs go to the opposite poles

A

Anaphase I of Meiosis

121
Q

At the end of Meiosis I, you have 2 daughter cells that are genetically ___

A

different

122
Q

Sister chromatids go to opposite poles

A

Anaphase II of Meiosis

123
Q

What do you have at the end of Meiosis II?

A

4 haploid daughter cells that are genetically different

124
Q

Per 1 round of meiosis for men, how many sperm cells are made?

A

4

125
Q

Per 1 round of meiosis for women, how many eggs are made?

A

1

126
Q

What are the 3 small eggs that disappear called?

A

Polar bodies

127
Q

When the chromosomes don’t separate properly in Anaphase

A

nondisjunction

128
Q

If a daughter chromosome inherits an extra chromosome

A

Trisomy

129
Q

Down syndrome (mental impairment, organ defects, short stature, eyes shaped differently, necks are thicker)

A

Trisomy 21

130
Q

If a daughter cell only inherits 1 chromosome instead of 2

A

Monosomy

131
Q

Chromosomes 1-22 in karyotype

A

Autosomes

132
Q

Sequential stages for growth and development

A

Life cycle

133
Q

Diploid phase is dominant phase; haploid phase only used to make gametes

A

Animal life cycle

134
Q

What are the only haploid cells in humans?

A

Gametes

135
Q

What you see is the diploid stage; haploid phase is microscopic; different species have different dominant phases; goes through meiosis to create haploid spores; spores grow into gametophyte with produces haploid gametes

A

Plant life cycle (some fungi and algae)

136
Q

See a different form in each stage; diploid and haploid stages

A

Alternation of generations

137
Q

Plant stage that produces spores

A

Sporophyte

138
Q

Plant stage that produces gametes

A

Gametophyte

139
Q

Haploid phase is dominant; gametophyte phase is what we see; only part thats diploid is after fertilization

A

Some fungi/algae life cycle

Biology 111 (4 decks)

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