Chapter Twelve - Problem-Solving and Reasoning

Question 1

What is a problem?

Answer 1

• an obstacle between present state and a goal
• not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle
• solution not immediately obvious

Question 2

What was problem solving like for Gestalt psychologists?

Answer 2

-representing a problem in the mind

Question 3

What is restructuring?

Answer 3

reorganization or restructuring the problem’s representation
EX: Kohler’s “circle” problem

Question 4

What did Gestalt psychologists relate restructuring with?

Answer 4

insight

Question 5

What is insight?

Answer 5

• sudden realization of a problem’s solution
• discovering a crucial element
• Aha experience

Question 6

What was Metcalfe + Wiebe’s experiment?

Answer 6

-designed an experiment to distinguish between insight + non insight problems

Question 7

Example of insight vs noninsight problem

Answer 7

insight: triangle problem, chain problem
noninsight: algebra

Question 8

What is the hypothesis to the Metcalfe and Wiebe experiment?

Answer 8

• in insight problems S should not be very good at predicting how near they are to a solution
• in non insight problems, S should know how close they are to a solution

Question 9

What were the results to the Metcalfe and Wiebe study?

Answer 9

• insight problems solved suddenly

- noninsight problems solved gradually

Question 10

According to Gestalt psychologists, what is one of the major obstacles to problem solving?

Answer 10

fixation

Question 11

What is fixation

Answer 11

tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps peole from arriving at a solution

Question 12

What is functional fixedness?

Answer 12

restricting use of an object to its familiar functions

Question 13

What are examples showing functional fixedness?

Answer 13

• two-string problem

- candle problem

Question 14

What is a mental set?

Answer 14

-preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
-based on person’s past experiences with the problem (or similar problems)
EX: water-jug problem

Question 15

How did the given mental set affect the water jug problem

Answer 15

given mental set inhibited participants from using simpler solution

Question 16

Who were Newell and Simon?

Answer 16

• logic theorists

- described problem solving as a process that involves search

Question 17

How did Newell and Simon view problem solving?

Answer 17

(Information-Processing Approach)

as a search that occurs between the posing of the problem and its solution

Question 18

What are 2 types of problem space?

Answer 18

initial state: conditions at the beginning of the problem

goal state: solution of the problem

Question 19

What are operators?

Answer 19

rules specify which moves are allowed and which are not

EX: Tower of Hanoi

Question 20

What is means-end analysis?

Answer 20

reduce differences between initial and goal states

Question 21

What are subgoals?

Answer 21

create intermediate states closer to goal

Question 22

What is one of the main contributions of Newell and Simon’s approach?

Answer 22

provided a way to specify the possible pathways from the initial to goal states

Question 23

What else can affect problem solving besides specifying the problem state?

Answer 23

how a problem is stated can affect its difficulty

EX: mutilated checkerobard

Question 24

What is think-aloud protocol?

Answer 24

• say aloud what one is thinking when solving a problem

- instructed not to describe what you are doing, but verbalize new thoughts

Question 25

What is the result of think-aloud protocol?

Answer 25

• shift in how one perceives elements of a problem

- similar to idea of reconstruction

Question 26

How can analogies be used to solve a problem?

Answer 26

using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem

Question 27

What is analogical problem solving?

Answer 27

using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem

Question 28

What is analogical transfer?

Answer 28

• the transfer from one problem to another

- source problem to target problem

Question 29

What is the target problem?

Answer 29

problem that S is trying to solve

Question 30

What is the source problem

Answer 30

another problem that shares some similarities with target problem

Question 31

What are Gick and Holyoak’s 3 steps to using analogies in problem solving?

Answer 31

1. noticing an analogous relationship (crucial most difficult)
2. mapping correspondence between source and target
3. applying mapping

Question 32

What is one reason that noticing the analogous relationship is difficult?

Answer 32

people often focus on surface features

Question 33

What is the relationship between the Radiation problem and the lightbulb problem?

Answer 33

• 81% of S that knew about the radiation problem solved the lightbult problem
• 10% of S in control group were able to solve problem
• surface similarity helped in solving the problem

Question 34

What does the lightbulb problem demonstrate?

Answer 34

high surface similarities aid in analogical problem solving

Question 35

what are surface features?

Answer 35

specific elements of a given problem

Question 36

How do structural features play into problem solving?

Answer 36

-underlying principal that governs the solution

EX: strong ray destroys tissue, strong laser breaks lightbulb

Question 37

What is analogical encoding?

Answer 37

• process by which two problems are compared

- similarities between them are determined

Question 38

What is a benefit of analogical encoding?

Answer 38

-effective way to get participants to pay attention to structural features that aid problem-solving

Question 39

What is a method of analogical encoding?

Answer 39

having people compare source stories may force S to focus on strutural features

Question 40

what is the analogical paradox?

Answer 40

-can be difficult to apply analogies in lab, but people use them in real-world

Question 41

What is in vivo problem solving research?

Answer 41

-people are observed to determined how tyey solve problems in the real world

Question 42

advantages + disadvantages of in vivo problem solving research

Answer 42

advantage: naturalistic setting
disadvantage: time consuming, cannot isolate + control variables

Question 43

What is an expert?

Answer 43

-a person who is extremely knowledgeable/skilled in a certain field due to devoting a large amount of time to learning/applying that learning

Question 44

What did Chase and Simon learn about experts?

Answer 44

-experts were better able to reproduce the positions of chess pieces when arranged in actual game positions

Question 45

What did Chi research?

Answer 45

presented 24 physics problems to a group of experts + novices

Question 46

What were the results of Chi’s physics experiment?

Answer 46

• novices sorted problems based on surface features

- experts sorted problems based on structural features

Question 47

Are experts better at problems than novices outside of their field?

Answer 47

no

Question 48

Are experts more or less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems

Answer 48

• less likely

- disadvantaged at flexible thinking

Question 49

What is creativity?

Answer 49

1. innovative thinking
2. novel ideas
3. new connections between existing ideas
4. divergent thinking: open-ended; large number of potential solutions

Question 50

What is problem solving as a creative process?

Answer 50

• most creative problem solving includes far more than just getting an idea
• lengthy period of trial and error

Question 51

4 stages of creative problem solving

Answer 51

1. problem generation: finding, fact finding
2. problem formulation: definition, finding
3. problem solving: evaluation, planning
4. solution implementation: selling idea, taking action

Question 52

How might too much knowledge hinder creative problem solving?

Answer 52

-oftentimes problems require thinking flexibility + rejecting accepted procedures