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AP Biology > Chapter 9: Molecular Biology > Flashcards

Chapter 9: Molecular Biology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
0
Q

Transformation

A

The ability of bacteria to absorb and express genetic information obtained from their surroundings.

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1
Q

Griffith’s DNA Discoveries

A

Genetic information can be transferred from dead bacteria to living bacteria.

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2
Q

Avery, Macleod, McCarth

A

Identify DNA as the heredity information of a cell.

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3
Q

Hershey and Chase

A

Establish that DNA was the genetic material of phages.

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4
Q

Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin

A

Determine the structure of DNA

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5
Q

Phages

A

Viruses that infect bacteria

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6
Q

One-gene-one-enzyme

A

The theory that the gene was defined as the segment of DNA that codes for a particular enzyme.

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7
Q

one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis

A

Each DNA segment codes for a particular polypeptide.

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8
Q

DNA replication

A

Involves separating (unzipping) the double-stranded DNA molecule into two strands, each of which serves as a template to assemble a new, complementary strand.

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9
Q

Semiconservative Replication

A

Each DNA contains one old strand, and one new strand.

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10
Q

Helicase

A

The enzyme that unwinds the DNA helix

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11
Q

Single-strand binding proteins

A

Proteins that attach to each strand of the uncoiled DNA to keep them separate.

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12
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

The enzyme that assembles the new DNA strand

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13
Q

Okazaki Fragments

A

DNA fragments in the 5’—>3’ template strand that are in segments because they can’t be connected as created when the DNA polymerase is working in the 5’–3’ direction.

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14
Q

DNA ligase

A

The thing that that connects the Okazaki fragments

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15
Q

Lagging Strand

A

The strand that takes more time to assemble than the complementary strand.

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16
Q

Chromosome Structure of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

A

Prokaryotes- Circular

Eukaryotes- Linear with ends called telomeres

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17
Q

Proofreading

A

DNA Polymerase checks to make sure that each newly added nucleotide correctly base-pairs with the template strand.

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18
Q

Mismatch repair problems

A

Repair errors that escape the proofreading ability of DNA polymerase.

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19
Q

Excision Repair Proteins

A

Identify and remove damaged nucleotides caused by environmental factors, such as toxins or radiation.

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20
Q

Protein Synthesis

A

The process that describes how enzymes and other proteins are made from DNA.

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21
Q

Polypeptides

A

DNA holds the codes for polypeptides.

Polypeptides are enzymes that regulate chemical reactions.

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22
Q

3 Steps in Proteins Synthesis

A
  1. Transcription
  2. RNA processing
  3. Translation
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23
Q

mRNA

A

Messenger RNA

A single strand of RNA that provides the template used for sequencing amino acids into a polypeptide.

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24
Q

Codon

A

A triplet group of three adjacent nucleotides on the mRNA

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25
Q

tRNA

A

A short RNA molecule (80 nucleotides) that is used for transporting amino acids to their proper place on the mRNA.

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26
Q

rRNA

A

Molecules that combine with various proteins to form ribosomes.

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27
Q

3 stages of Transcription

A
  1. Initiation
  2. Elongation
  3. Termination
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28
Q
  1. Initiation
A

Stage 1 of Transcription

The RNA polymerase attaches to a promoter region on the DNA and begins to unzip the DNA into two strands.

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29
Q
  1. Elongation
A

Second stage of transcription

Occurs as the RNA polymerase unzips the DNA and assembles RNA nucleotides using one strand of the DNA as a template.

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30
Q
  1. Termination
A

Occurs when the RNA polymerase reaches a special sequence of nucleotides that serve as a termination point.

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31
Q

5’ Cap

A

A guanine nucleotide with two additional phosphate groups that is added to the 5’ end of mRNA.
Provides stability to the mRNA and a point of attachment for the small subunit of the ribosome

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32
Q

Poly- A tail

A

Attached to the 3’ end of the mRNA

Provides stability to the mRNA, and also controls the movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope

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33
Q

RNA splicing

A

Removes nucleotide segments from mRNA.

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34
Q

Exons

A

Sequences that EXpress a code for a polypeptide

35
Q

Introns

A

INtervening sequences that are noncoding

36
Q

snRNPs

A

Small Nuclear Ribonucleoproteins

Delete the introns and splice the exons

37
Q

Alternative Splicing

A

Allows different mRNAs to be generated from the same RNA transcript.
By selectively removing different parts of an RNA transcript, different mRNAs can be produced, each coding for a different protein product.

38
Q

Mutation

A

Any sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule that does not exactly match the original DNA molecule from which it was copied.

39
Q

Mutagens

A

Radiation or chemicals that cause mutations

40
Q

Carcinogens

A

Mutagens that activate uncontrolled cell growth.

41
Q

Point Mutation

A

A single nucleotide error.

Ex. Substitution, Deletion, Insertion, Frameshift

42
Q

Silent Mutation

A

Occurs when the new codon still codes for the SAMe amino acid

43
Q

Wobble Pairing

A

The relaxed requirement for the nucleotide in the third position

44
Q

Missense Mutation

A

Occurs when the new codon codes for a new amino acid

Ex. Haemoglobin Protein—> Sickle Cell Disease

45
Q

Nonsense Mutation

A

Occurs when when the new codon codes for a stop codon.

46
Q

Transposons

A

“Jumping Genes”

DNA segments that insert themselves throughout the genome after copying or deleting themselves from another area.

47
Q

Bacteriophages

A

Viruses that attack only bacteria

48
Q

Virus

A

Parasite of cells

49
Q

Lytic Cycle

A

A virus penetrates the cell membrane of the host and uses the enzymes of the host to produce viral nucleic acids and viral proteins.

50
Q

Lysogenic Cycle

A

The viral DNA is temporarily incorporated into the DNA of the host cell.
Eventually, a trigger, often an external environmental stimulus, causes the virus to begin the lytic cycle.

51
Q

A virus in its dormant state

A

Provirus

52
Q

Retroviruses

A

ssRNA viruses that use an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to make a DNA complement of their RNA.

53
Q

Binary Fission

A

How prokaryotes reproduce.

The chromosome replicates and the cell divides into two cells, each cell bearing one chromosome.

54
Q

Plasmids

A

Short, circular dsDNA molecules outside the chromosome.

Replicate independent of the chromosome.

55
Q

Conjugation

A

The process of DNA exchange between bacteria.

56
Q

Transduction

A

Occurs when new DNA is introduced into the genome of a bacterium by a virus.

57
Q

Horizontal Gene Transfer

A

How genetic variation is introduced into the genome of a bacterium by a virus.

58
Q

Transformation

A

Occurs when bacteria absorb DNA from their surroundings and incorporate it into their genome.

59
Q

Operon

A

A unit of DNA that contains multiple genes whose products work together to direct a single metabolic pathway.

60
Q

Operator Region

A

The region that is engaged by a regulatory protein to either block or promote the action of the RNA polymerase.

61
Q

Promoter Region

A

A sequence of DNA to which the RNA polymerase attaches to begin transcription.

62
Q

Structural Genes

A

Contain coding DNA. DNA sequences that code for various related enzymes that direct the production of some particular end product.

63
Q

Regulatory Gene

A

Lies outside the operon region, and produces a regulatory protein that engages the operator region and governs whether RNA polymerase can attach to the promoter region and begin transcription.

64
Q

Repressor Protein

A

BLOCKS the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter region.
Must be inactive for transcription to occur.

65
Q

Activator Protein

A

Promotes the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter region.
Must be active for transcription to occur.

66
Q

3 Examples of Gene Regulation in Bacteria

A

trp operon— E. coli
lac operon— E. Coli
Glucose repression— E. Coli

67
Q

trp operon

A

Produces enzymes for the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan. A regulatory gene produces an inactive repressor that does not bind to the operator.
When levels of tryptophan rise to a certain level, the repressor becomes active.

68
Q

lac operon

A

Controls the breakdown of lactose.
Regulatory gene produces an active repressor that binds to the operator region.
When lactose is available, some binds to repressor making it inactive.

69
Q

Glucose Repression

A

A second regulatory process that influences the lac operon.
Glucose is preferred over lactose for energy.
When only lactose is present, this process enhances the breakdown of lactose.
Positive Regulation

70
Q

3 things that make regulation of gene expression in eukaryotic cells more complicated

A
  1. Multicellularity
  2. Chromosome Complexity
  3. Uncoupling of Transcription and Translation
71
Q

DNA methylation

A

Occurs when methyl groups (-CH2) attach to DNA bases.

Makes it difficult to access genes

72
Q

Histone Modification

A

Changes in the organization of histone proteins with DNA.
DNA arranged in tight nucleosomes
Access to DNA for transcription can by increased by Acetylation and Methylation

73
Q

Acetylation

A

Histone molecules loosen their grip on the DNA molecule when they are acetylated.
Associated with activated transcription.

74
Q

Methylation

A

Histones are methylated when a methyl group is attached. In most cases, methylated histones are associated with repressed transcription.

75
Q

Transcription Complex

A

A group of various proteins that are associated with RNA polymerase activity

76
Q

General Transcription Factors

A

Proteins that are required by ALL transcription events to successfully initiate transcription by RNA polymerase.

77
Q

Specific Transcription Factors

A

Additional proteins associated with regulating SPECIFIC transcription activities.– SPecific to cell type, specific to the particular genes, or specific to the timing of the transcription.

78
Q

Co-activatiors and Mediators

A

Additional proteins that contribute to the binding of transcription complex components.

79
Q

Cell Determination

A

The process that fixes a cell’s fate

80
Q

Reproductive Cloning

A

The process of making an individual with the same nuclear DNA as another animal.

81
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

Contains DNA segments or genes from different sources.

82
Q

Biotechnology

A

The use of biological systems to modify organisms or produce desired products.

83
Q

DNA Cloning

A

A procedure that allows DNA fragments or genes to be copied

84
Q

Genomic Library

A

A collection of bacteria, each of which contain a fragment of the genome of the foreign DNA but together contain the entire genome of the foreign DNA.

85
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction

A

A technique that makes large numbers of DNA copies faster than the DNA cloning process previously described.

AP Biology (7 decks)

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