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psyc 213 - cognition > chapter 9: knowledge > Flashcards

chapter 9: knowledge Flashcards

1
Q

define schematic knowledge

A

general knowledge about something in the world that we gain through experience

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2
Q

name the functions of semantic knowledge

A
  1. use prior knowledge to make inferences
  2. helps us predict how to behave in a new situation
  3. helps us create an organized, connected understanding of the world
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3
Q

define category

A

set of items that are perceptually, biologically, or functionally similar.
- all items are equivalent
- individual items are called exemplars

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4
Q

define concept

A

mental representation of objects, ideas or events
- groupings of things “inside” our minds
- depends on how each person assigns meaning to the world

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5
Q

what is the commonsense knowledge problem

A

computers don’t possess the same commonsense knowledge as humans because knowledge has to be explicit with AI compared to human’s ability to infer implicit knowledge

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6
Q

which of the following statements is correct?
a. poodle is an exemplar of the dog category
b. poodle is an exemplar of a dog feature
c. poodle is a feature of the dog category
d. poodle is a category of a dog concept

A

a. poodle is an exemplar of the dog category

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7
Q

explain the classical view of categorization

A

categories are well-defined by clear features that are necessary and sufficient

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8
Q

use the example of the grandmother category to explain the necessary and sufficient features

A

must have a child who is a parent (necessary)
but no other criteria: can be senior, have gray hair, etc (sufficient)

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9
Q

Wittgenstein identified a problem with the classical view of categorization. what was it?

A

nearly impossible to identify defining category features for most categories
- look for features that exemplars have in common to determine category membership

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10
Q

what is a typicality rating

A

an experimental task in which Ps rate how good an exemplar is of a category

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11
Q

define typicality effects

A

observations that we behave differently toward typical items compared to atypical ones

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12
Q

describe the procedure called lexical decision task

A

Ps are shown a string of letters on a computer and are asked to indicate whether they spell a real word or not

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13
Q

define semantic priming

A

occurs when a person’s response time on a task is faster if it is preceded by a semantically related word compared to a word that isn’t semantically related
- phenomena of lexical decision task

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14
Q

give 4 examples of typicality effects

A
  1. name typical category members before atypical ones
  2. faster to put typical members into categories than atypical ones
  3. typical exemplars show larger priming effects than atypical ones
  4. infants learn typical category members first
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15
Q

what is the prototype theory of categorization

A

consider which features are most likely among category members
- characteristic features: likely to belong but not required
- fuzzy boundaries
- family resemblance

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16
Q

according to the prototype theory of categorization, what is a prototype?

A

average of all category members so as a consequence, most typical member of category

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17
Q

according to the prototype theory of categorization, how do you determine whether an item belongs to a category

A

compare it to the prototype to look for overlapping characteristics
- the more similar, the more typical a category member it is

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18
Q

name 2 problems of the prototype theory of categorization

A
  1. typicality depends on the context
  2. doesn’t account for atypical category members
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19
Q

name and describe the alternate theory of categorization to the prototype theory

A

exemplar theory of categorization
- compare new items with the ones in memory and look for similarities between features

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20
Q

how does the exemplar theory of categorization explain the problems from the prototype theory

A

typicality effects: typical items are similar to other category members so it’ll be easier to retrieve those members
context effects: depends on personal experience

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21
Q

what was the conclusion drawn from Dopkins and Gleason’s rectangle categorization experiment

A

Ps base their categorization on similarity to previously seen exemplars rather than similarity to prototype

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22
Q

what are two things both the prototype theory and the exemplar theory fail to account for

A
  1. typicality rating
  2. doesn’t specify how we decide which features to compare
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23
Q

explain the knowledge-based theory of categorization

A
  • rely on our broad knowledge base to explain reasons for category membership
  • implicit
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24
Q

define psychological essentialism

A

categories have a natural underlying true nature that cannot be stated explicitly

25
Q

what is one consequence of categorization based on psychological essentialism

A

risk of applying “essential” qualities to social categories in the same way that we do to biological categories

26
Q

people with higher essentialist beliefs are more or less likely to endorse a variety of stereotypes

A

more likely

27
Q

According to Rosch, name the three levels of categories items can belong to and differentiate them

A

superordinate: distinctive, but not informative
basic: distinctive and informative
subordinate: informative, but not distinctive

28
Q

explain Collins and Quillian’s hierarchical model

A
  • knowledge is stored as concepts called “nodes”
  • network of interconnected “nodes”
  • hierarchically organized
  • each concept has properties
29
Q

what is cognitive economy and why does the hierarchy model demonstrates it

A

tendency to conserve cognitive resources and efforts
- bc of limited memory storage

30
Q

what is property inheritance

A

nodes inherit properties of nodes higher in the hierarchy

31
Q

explain the sentence verification task used by Collins and Quillian to test the hierarchical semantic network model

A

Ps presented with sentences
- asked to press one button if true, another if false
Ps responded faster to sentences that could be answered between fewest levels in hierarchy

32
Q

Name one problem with the hierarchical model

A

fails to account for typicality effect

33
Q

what is the spreading activation model

A

model in which concepts are organized based on their semantic similarity to each other
- no hierarchy

34
Q

explain the conclusion drawn from the lexical decision task

A

Ps are faster to respond to the word “butter” if it was presented with the word “bread” before compared to the word “nurse”
nodes are connected via semantic relatedness

35
Q

how does the spreading activation model explain the typicality effects

A

typical exemplars are semantically similar to each other and therefore, activation will spread quickly between them

36
Q

explain the schema view of knowledge

A

knowledge is organized into groups of related info called “schemata”
- schema is everything we know about a particular thing

37
Q

explain the repeated reproduction task

A

Ps shown a stimulus
- asked to reproduce after a delay over and over again
- reproductions become less similar to stimulus and more like a familiar object
- details are lost from memory but our schemata help guide memory retrieval

38
Q

what is the symbol grounding problem

A

symbol systems need a way to connect to the real world to avoid an endless cycle of symbolic representation

39
Q

how did AI address the symbol grounding problem

A

robotics

  • receive sensory input
  • manipulate objects to be in direct access with env
40
Q

explain the neural network model

A

knowledge is contained in distribution of weights between connected nodes
- weight determines which pattern from inputs produce specific outputs

41
Q

describe the phenomenon known as graceful degradation

A

damage to part of the network results in relatively few deficits because info is distributed across network and no single node contains info

42
Q

define category-specific deficits

A

loss of semantic knowledge from one category but not another as a result of brain damage

43
Q

what is the “black box” problem of neural network models

A

difficult to determine why a neural network made the response it did
- info represented in values of distributed weights, not meaningful semantic units

44
Q

explain the embodied cognition theory that supports the idea of interaction between brain, body and environment

A

weak view: body influences cognition
- body position at encoding and retrieval
causal view: cognition is grounded in sensory experiences
- knowledge uses similar sensorimotor neurons as perception and action

45
Q

what is the major difference between embodied theories and classic theories (prototype and semantic)

A

embodied: knowledge is driven, flexible and context-dependent
classic: knowledge is abstract and independent of context

46
Q

what is semantic dementia

A

deficit in naming ability, comprehension in language and object use
- anomia

47
Q

semantic dementia is associated with the degeneration of neurons in which part of the brain

A

anterior temporal lobe (ATL)

48
Q

why isn’t it possible to say semantic memory resides in the ATL

A
  1. damage to ATL doesn’t always result in the same pattern of semantic knowledge loss
  2. low activation of ATL during tasks involving semantic memory
49
Q

what is the hub-and-spoke model

A

hub: generalized and abstract knowledge is stored
spoke: context-dependent and modality-specific detail is stored

50
Q

What is the transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A
  • non invasive technique
  • use magnetic field to stimulate cortical neurons in localized part of brain
51
Q

how did the use of TMS support the hub-and-spoke model

A

ATL stimulated: time to name all objects increased
IPL stimulated: time to name non-living things that could be manipulated with hands increased.
- non living things that can’t be hand manipulated unchanged

52
Q

which brain region was developed in experienced taxi drivers

A

posterior hippocampal volume ↑ as the years of experience ↑

53
Q

what is highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM)

A
  • enhanced autobiographical memory
  • no mnemonic strategies
54
Q

what are some downside to a detailed memory

A
  • ocd
  • difficulty forming social networks
55
Q

define generalization

A

process of deriving a concept from a limited number of specific cases and applying it more widely to help you label new instances

56
Q

what is conceptual expansion

A

process of thinking outside traditional conceptual boundaries

57
Q

what is the perceptual symbol theory

A

access diff features of a concept for a given task
- bc diff features r processed differently

58
Q

describe the property verification task

A
  • presented with 2 concept-senses match
    Ps faster to respond if previous trial asked abt a feature from same percept

psyc 213 - cognition (13 decks)

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