Chapter 9: Exam 3 (Skipped)

Question 1

Middle Childhood

Answer 1

Defined as ages from 6 to 12

Question 2

Growth Patterns

Answer 2

• Boys and Girls continue to gain over two inches in height per year until the growth spurt begins
• Average gain in weight is 5 to 7 pounds in a year (less stocky and more slender)

Question 3

Growth Spurt

Answer 3

A period during which growth advances at a dramatically rapid rate compared with other periods

Question 4

Nutrition and Growth

Answer 4

• Average child’s body weight doubles in middle childhood
• A Great deal of energy in physical activity and play therefore, school children eat more than preschoolers to fuel this growth and activity

a. 4 to 6-year-olds need 1,400 to 1,800 calories per day

b. average 7 to 10-year-olds require 2,000 calories per day

Question 5

Gender Similarities & Differences
(Physical Growth)

Answer 5

• Boys are slightly heavier and taller than girls through the age of 9 or 10
• Girls begin their adolescent growth spurt and surpass boys in height and weight until about 13 or 14 years old. Then boys spurt and grow heavier & taller
  (this process is paralleled by increased muscle strength in both genders)

Question 6

Weight
(Obesity)

Answer 6

• 16% - 25% of children and adolescents in the U.S. are overweight or obese.
• Latin American boys are more likely than European Americans to be overweight.
• African American girls are more likely than European Americans to be overweight
• Obese children are more likely to develop high blood pressure and high cholesterol
• Obese children are more likely to develop diabetes
• Obese children are more likely to develop breathing problems (like asthma), joint problems, fatty liver disease, gallstones, and acid reflux.
• They are also often rejected by their peers

Question 7

Causes of Being Overweight

Answer 7

Heredity:
a. some inherit the tendency to burn up extra calories
b. some inherit the tendency to turn extra calories into fat

Other factors:

Consumptions of sugary drinks (sodas)
Less healthful foods at school or daycare
Advertising for fattening foods
Lack of regular physical activity
Limited access to healthful affordable foods
Availability of “high energy” drinks (high sugar)
Large portion sizes (supersizing)
Lack of breastfeeding
TV and other media
Overweight parents serve as examples of poor exercise habits, encouraging overeating, and keeping unhealthful foods in home.

Question 8

Motor Development

Answer 8

School years are marked by increases in child speed, agility, and balance.

Question 9

Gross Motor Skills
(Middle Childhood)

Answer 9

• Age 6 - children are hopping, jumping, and climbing
• Age 6 or 7 - children are capable of pedaling and balancing on a bicycle
• Age 8 to 10 - children are showing balance, coordination, and strength allowing them to engage in gymnastics and team sports

Muscles are growing stronger, and neural pathways that connect the cerebellum to cortex becoming are more myelinated

Question 10

Reaction Time

Answer 10

The amount of time required to respond to a stimulus.

• Gradually improves (decreases) from early childhood to about 18, but there are individual differences [increases again in adulthood]

Question 11

Fine Motor Skills

Answer 11

• By age 6 to 7 - children usually tie their shoelaces and hold their pencils as adults do.

*Abilities to fasten buttons, zip zippers, brush their teeth, wash their bodies, coordinate a knife and fork, and use chopsticks all develop during the early school years and improve during childhood.

Question 12

Gender Differences

Answer 12

Between middle childhood and adolescence, physical activities become increasingly stereotyped by children as being masculine (e.g. football) or feminine (e.g. dance)

*Boys show slightly greater strength (especially in the forearm strength; aiding in swinging a bat or throwing a ball)

• Girls show somewhat greater limb coordination and overall flexibility (valuable in dancing, balancing, and gymnastics)

Question 13

Exercise and Fitness

Answer 13

• Cardiac and Muscular Fitness developed by: (aerobic exercises) such as running, walking quickly, swimming laps, bicycling, or jumping rope.
• Reduces the risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and certain forms of cancer.

Physically active children have better self-image and coping skills

Question 14

Disorders that affect Learning

Answer 14

Certain disabilities of childhood are most apt to be noticed in middle childhood years

Question 15

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)

Answer 15

A disorder characterized by excessive inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity

*Typically occurs at the age of 7, impairing children’s ability to function in school, sit still, and get along with others.

• 1% - 5% of school-aged children diagnosed and more common among boys

Question 16

Hyperactivity

Answer 16

Excessive restlessness and overactivity; a characteristics of ADHD

Question 17

Causes of ADHD

Answer 17

*Genetic component involving the brain chemical dopamine

1970s view that food coloring and preservatives were linked but proven wrong through research

Researchers suggest a lack of executive control of the brain over motor and more primitive functions

Question 18

Truth or Fiction
Hyperactivity is caused by chemical food additives.

Answer 18

Fiction
Researchers now generally agree that food coloring and preservatives do not cause ADHD

Question 19

Stimulants

Answer 19

Drugs that increase the activity of the nervous system

*Ritalin, for example, promotes the activity of the brain chemicals dopamine and noradrenaline, stimulating the “executive center” of the brain to control more primitive areas of the brain. It provides the following effects:
a.) increases children’s attention span
b.) improves their academic performance

Question 20

Truth of Fiction
Stimulants are often used to treat children who are already hyperactive

Answer 20

Truth
The stimulants help children obtain cortical control over lower brain center (which may fire overactivity)

Question 21

Dyslexia

Answer 21

A reading disorder characterized by letter reversals, mirror reading, slow reading, and reduced comprehension

*5% - 17.5% of American Children

Question 22

Learning Disabilities

Answer 22

Disorders characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills.

Question 23

Origins of Dyslexia

Answer 23

Genetic Factors:
* 25% - 65% of children who have one dyslexic parent are dyslexic themselves
* 40% of the siblings of children with dyslexia are dyslexic

Neurological Problems or Circulation Problems in the Left Hemisphere:

• Circulation problems would result in oxygen deficiency in the part of the brain called the angular gyrus, which translates visual information (written words) into auditory information (sounds).

Making it difficult for the reader to associate letters with sounds

Question 24

Phonological Processing

Answer 24

Dyslexic children may not discriminate sounds as accurately as other children do (b’s, d’s, and p’s may be hard to tell apart, creating confusion that impairs the reading ability.

Question 25

Educating Children with Disabilities

Answer 25

Remediation (Highly structured exercises)
a.) how to blend sounds to form words
b.) identifying word pairs that rhyme and do not change

Later in life, the focus tends to be on accommodations:
a.) college student given extra time in reading and taking tests

Question 26

Mainstreaming

Answer 26

Placing disabled children in classrooms with nondisabled children

Question 27

Cognitive Development

Answer 27

• At age 11, children can understand ambiguities in grammatical structure
• Thought process and language become more logical and complex

Question 28

Concrete-Operations

Answer 28

The third stage of Piaget’s scheme is characterized by flexible, reversible thought concerning tangible objects and events.

• by the age of 7 to about 12 years old, show beginnings of adult logic but generally focus on tangible objects rather than abstract ideas “concrete.” (adding and subtracting)

They are less egocentric recognizing that people see things differently because of different situations and values.

Question 29

Decentration

Answer 29

Simultaneous focusing on more than one aspect or dimension of a problem or situation (focusing on multiple parts of a problem at once)

Question 30

Conservation

Answer 30

Concrete-operational children show an understanding of the laws of conservation
[know that objects can have several properties or dimensions]

Question 31

Transitivity

Answer 31

The principle that if A > B and B > C, then A > C.

Researchers can asses whether children understand the principle of transitivity by asking them to place objects in a series, or order, according to some property, such as lining up one’s family members according to age, height, or weight.

Question 32

Seriation

Answer 32

Placing objects in an order or series according to a property or trait

Question 33

Class Inclusion

Answer 33

Concrete-operational children can focus on two subclasses (cat, dog) and the larger subclass (animals) at the same time.

Question 34

Applications of Piaget’s Theory of Education

Answer 34

*Piaget believed learning involves active discovery and instructions should be geared to a child’s level of development
Example:
When teaching fractions, teachers should not only lecture but should allow the child to divide concrete objects into parts.

Also that the perspective of others is a key ingredient in the development of both cognitive and morality

Question 35

Moral Development: The Child as Judge

Answer 35

Cognitive level, moral development concerns the basis on which children make judgments that an act is right or wrong.

*Maybe influenced by the values of the cultural settings in which they are reared, but also reflect the unfolding of cognitive processes.

Question 36

Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development

Answer 36

Children’s moral judgement develops in two overlapping stages:

• moral realism
• autonomous morality

Question 37

Moral Realism

Answer 37

The judgment of acts as moral when they conform to the authority or to the rules of the game (Age 5)

*Children consider behavior correct when if forms to authority or to the rules of the game

Question 38

Objective Morality

Answer 38

The perception of morality as objective, that is, as existing outside the cognitive functioning of people

Question 39

Immanent Justice
or Automatic Retribution

Answer 39

The view is that retribution for wrongdoing is a direct consequence of the wrongdoing.

• Involves thinking that negative experiences are punishment for prior misdeeds even when realistic causal links are absent.

Question 40

Autonomous Morality

Answer 40

The second stage of Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory of moral development is in which children base moral judgments on the intentions of the wrongdoer and on the amount of damage done.

*Children in this stage show a greater capacity to take the point of view of others to empathize with them.

Question 41

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Answer 41

Children and adults arrive at “Yes” or “No” for different reasons. These reasons can be classified according to the level of moral development they reflect.

3 Levels of Moral Development:
1. Preconventional (Stages 1 & 2)
2. Conventional (Stages 3 & 4)
3. Postconventional (Stages 5 & 6)

Question 42

Preconventional Level

Answer 42

According to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are based largely on expectations of rewards or punishments (base their moral judgments on the consequences of their behavior)
[ages 7 to 10]

Stage 1: Oriented toward obedience and punishment. Good behavior means being obedient so one can avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Good behavior allows people to satisfy their own needs and perhaps the needs of others

Question 43

Conventional Level

Answer 43

According to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments largely reflect social rules and conventions (family, religious, societal standards of right or wrong)
[emerge during middle childhood]

Stage 3: it is good to meet the needs and expectations of others, moral behavior what is “normal” and what the majority does

Stage 4: Moral judgments are based on rules that maintain the social order, and showing respect for authority and duty is valued highly.

Question 44

Postconventional Level

Answer 44

According to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are derived from moral principles and people look to themselves to set moral standards, moral reasoning is based on the person’s own moral standards.
[adolescents and adults]
Stage 5 - one must weigh pressing human needs against society’s need to maintain social order and contractual, legalistic orientation.
Stage 6 - People must follow universal ethical principles and their own consciences
even if it means breaking the law, universal ethical principles orientation.

Question 45

Information Processing: Learning, Remembering, Problem-Solving

Answer 45

Key Elements:
*Development of selective attention
*Development of the capacity of memory and of children’s understanding of the processes of memory
*Development of the ability to solve problems, for example, by finding and applying the correct formula.

Question 46

Development of Selective Attention

Answer 46

*Ability to focus one’s attention and screen out distractions advances steadily through middle childhood

*Concrete operational children can attend to multiple aspects of the problem at once, permitting them to conserve number and volume.

Question 47

Developments in the Storage and Retrieval Information

Answer 47

Many psychologists divide memory functioning into three major processes or structures:

Sensory memory
Working memory
Long-term memory

Question 48

Sensory Memory

Answer 48

The structure of memory first encountered by sensory input information is maintained in sensory memory for only a fraction of a second.

Question 49

Sensory Register

Answer 49

Another term for sensory memory

(Applies to all senses)

Question 50

Working Memory

Answer 50

The structure of memory can hold sensory stimulus for up to 30 stimuli for up to 30 seconds after the trace decays.

Question 51

Encode

Answer 51

To transform sensory input into a form that is more readily processed

Question 52

Rehearsing

Answer 52

Repeat in this case, mentally

Question 53

Long-term Memory

Answer 53

The memory structure capable of relatively permanent storage of information

Question 54

Elaborative Strategy

Answer 54

A method for increasing retention of new information by relating it to well-known information

*English teachers use an elaborative strategy when they have children use new words in sentences to help them remember them

Question 55

Organizing in Long-Term Memory

Answer 55

Preschoolers tend to organize their memories by grouping objects that share the same function. “Toas ./t” may be grouped with “peanut butter sandwich” because they are both edible.

In middle childhood, toast and peanut butter are likely to be joined as foods.

***When items are correctly categorized in long-term memory, children are more likely to recall accurate information

Question 56

Development of Recall Memory

Answer 56

Children’s memory is a good overall indicator of their cognitive ability.

*Placed objects into four categories experiment ( given 3 minutes to arrange pictures to remember)

Results: Fourth graders were more likely to categorize and recall the pictures than second graders.

Question 57

Metacognition

Answer 57

Awareness of and control of one’s cognitive abilities is shown by the ability to formulate problems, awareness of the processes required to solve a problem, activation of cognitive strategies, maintaining focus on the problem, and checking answers.

Question 58

Metamemory

Answer 58

Knowledge of the functions and processes involved in one’s storage and retrieval of information.

*older students are more likely to accurately access their knowledge. So, older children store and retrieve information more effectively.

Question 59

Intelligence

Answer 59

A general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience.

*Associated with academic success, advancement on the job, and appropriate social behavior

*Cannot be seen, touched, or measured physically, therefore it is subject to various interpretations

Question 60

Achievement

Answer 60

That which is attained by one’s efforts and presumed to be made possible by one’s abilities.

*involves a child’s acquired competencies or performance

*most psychologists agree that many of the competencies underlying intelligence are seen during middle childhood when most children are first exposed to formal schooling.

Question 61

Factor Theory of Intelligence

Answer 61

View intelligence as consisting of one or more major abilities or factors.

• Spearman Suggests:
  Behaviors considered intelligent have a common underlying factor (g factor) or general intelligence, which represents broad reasoning and problem-solving capabilities, and the specific capabilities, or (s factors) account for certain individuals’ abilities, like music or poetry.

*Thurstone believed intelligence consists of several specific factors, or primary mental abilities, such as the ability to learn the meaning of words and visual-spatial abilities (factors were somewhat independent)

Question 62

Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence

Answer 62

Three-Part or “Triarchic” Theory of Intelligence

• Analytical Intelligence is an academic ability
  *Creative Intelligence is defined by the ability to invent solutions to problems and cope with novel situations
  *Practical Intelligence or “Street Smarts” enables people to adapt to the demands of their environment, including the social environment

Question 63

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Answer 63

Three of Gardner’s intelligence are:
1. Verbal Ability (Linguistic)
2. Logical-Mathematical reasoning
3. Spatial Intelligence (Visual-spatial skills)

Others Include:
a.) Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (dancers/gymnasts)
b.)Musical Intelligence
c.) Interpersonal Intelligence (empathy/ability to relate to others)
d.) Personal Knowledge
(self-insight)

Question 64

Measurements of Intellectual Scale

Answer 64

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)
Wechsler Scale for Children

Question 65

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Answer 65

1) ratio obtained by dividing a child’s mental age on an intelligence test by his or her chronological age
2) a score on an intelligent test

Most children’s IQ scores cluster around the average (only 5% of population have IQ scores above 130 or below 70)

Question 66

Binet-Simon Scale

Answer 66

Work of Frechman Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon (for French Public School)

• Assumed intelligence increases with age therefore, older children should get more answers right.

Binet-Simon Scale yielded a score called Mental Age

Question 67

Mental Age (MA)

Answer 67

The intellectual level at which a child functions, based on the typical performance of a child of a certain age

Question 68

Stanford-Binet Intelligent Test

Answer 68

Louis Terman adapted Binet-Simon scale for use with American children. (work carried out at Stanford University, changing to name to “Stanford-Binet”)

*Used today with children ages 2 up to adults

Question 69

Chronological Age (CA)

Answer 69

A person’s age

IQ states the relationship between a child’s mental age and his or her chronological age

Formula

IQ = Mental Age / Chronological Age X 100

Question 70

Truth or Fiction
Two children can answer exactly the same times on an intelligence test correctly yet one can be above average and the other below average

Answer 70

True
Two children can answer exactly the same times on an intelligence test correctly, yet one can be above average and the other below average. The younger child would have a higher IQ score because his or her performance is compared to those of others in his or her age group.

Question 71

Wechsler Scales

Answer 71

Series of scales:

*Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) school-aged children
* Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) younger children
*Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS) adults

Group test questions into subtests that measure different intellectual tasks

Question 72

Testing Controversy

Answer 72

Most psychologists and educational specialists consider intelligence test to be somewhat biased against African Americans and members of lower social classes

Question 73

Cultural Bias

Answer 73

A factor hypothesized to be present in intelligence tests that provide an advantage for test takers from certain cultural backgrounds

Question 74

Culture-Free

Answer 74

Descriptive of a test in which cultural biases have been removed

Raymond Cattells Culture-Fair intelligence Test evaluated reasoning ability through a child’s comprehension of the rules that govern a progression of geometric designs

Question 75

Culture-Free did not live up to its promise.

Answer 75

1. Middle-class children outperformed lower-class children due to familiarity with materials used in testing, like blocks, pencils, and paper.
2. They did not predict academic success, as well as other intelligence tests and scholastic aptitude, remain the central concern of educators.

Question 76

Patterns of Intellectual Development

Answer 76

Intellectual Growth occurs in 2 major growth spurts:
1.) Age 6, A shift from pre-operational to concrete operational thought occurs during entry into school
2.) Age 10 or 11, Once they reach middle childhood, children appear to undergo relatively more stable patterns or gains in intellectual functioning in spurts.

Many factors that influence changes in IQ scores include:

a. changes in the home
b. socio-economic circumstances
c. education

Question 77

Differences in Intellectual Development

Answer 77

• Average IQ score in the U.S. is close to 100; about half the children in the U.S. attain IQ scores between 70 and 130

Below 70 is labeled”Intellectually Disabled.”

Above 130 is labeled “Gifted”

Question 78

Intellectual Disability

Answer 78

American Association Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD, 2016)

“Intellectual Disability is…characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18.” [IQ scores of no more than 70 to 75]

80% are mildly disabled and are most capable of adjusting to the demands of educational institutions and society at large. (children with Down’s Syndrome)

Severely disabled children may not acquire speech and self-help skills and may remain dependent on others for survival.

Question 79

Biological Causes for Intellectual Disability

Answer 79

*Chromosomal abnormalities such as Down’s Syndrome

• Genetic Disorders such as phenylketonuria (PKU)
• Brain Damage for childhood accidents or maternal problems during pregnancy like:
  a. maternal alcohol abuse
  b. malnutrition
  c. diseases that can damage the fetus

Question 80

Cultural-Familial Disability

Answer 80

Substandard intellectual performance stems from a lack of opportunity to acquire knowledge and skills.

*Biologically normal, but do not develop age-appropriate behavior at a normal pace because of impoverished home environment

Question 81

Giftedness

Answer 81

More than excellence on tasks provided by standard intelligence tests

*Most educators include children who have outstanding abilities: capable of high performance in academic area, such as language or mathematics, or show creativity, leadership, distinction in the visual or performing arts, or bodily talents such as gymnastics or dancing.

Question 82

Socio-economic and Ethnic Differences in IQ

Answer 82

*Lower-class American children obtain IQ scores of some 10 to 15 points lower than those obtained by middle and upper-class children

*African American, Latin American, and Native American children all tend to score below the norms for European Americans.

Question 83

Creativity

Answer 83

A trait characterized by flexibility, ingenuity, and originality (ability to do things that are novel and useful)

*can solve problems to which there are no pre-existing solutions, no tried and tested formulas.

Question 84

Truth or Fiction
Highly intelligent children are creative

Answer 84

Fiction
It is not necessarily true that highly intelligent children are creative – unless, of course, one considers creativity to be an aspect of intelligence, as in Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence.

Question 85

Convergent Thinking

Answer 85

A thought process that attempts to focus on the single best solution to a problem

*Problem solver narrows down his or her thinking to find the best solution (mainly used for arriving at the correct answer on tests like multiple choice)

Question 86

Divergent Thinking

Answer 86

Free and fluent association with the elements of a problem (used when we try generate ideas to answer an essay question)

Question 87

Heritability

Answer 87

The degree to which the variations in a trait from one person to another can be attributed to genetic factors

• Genetic factors of intelligence 40% - 60%

Children whose parents are responsive and provide appropriate play materials and varied experiences during early years attain higher IQ and achievement test scores.

However, heredity and environment interact and influence intelligence

Question 88

Language Development and Literacy

Answer 88

Childrens language ability grows more sophisticated in middle childhood in middle childhood (and they learn to read as well)

Question 89

Vocabulary and Grammar

Answer 89

*Age 6, vocabulary expands to nearly 1,000 words
*Age 7 or 9, able to know most words can have different meanings (become entertained with riddles and jokes that require semantic sophistication)
*Age 8 or 9, able to form “tag questions” in which the question is tagged at the end of a declarative sentence, such as “You want ice cream, don’t you?”

*Preschoolers have a hard time understanding passive sentences such as “The truck was hit by the car,” but children in middle years have less difficulty interpreting them.

Question 90

Word recognition method

Answer 90

A method for learning to read in which children come to recognize words through repeated exposure to them

*Associates visual stimuli such as cat and Robert with the sound combinations that produce the spoken words [usually acquired by rote learning or extensive repetition]

Question 91

Phonetic Method

Answer 91

A method for learning to read in which children decode the sounds of words based on their knowledge of the sounds of letters and letter combinations

*Associate written letters and letter combinations (such as ph or sh) with the sound they indicate

Question 92

Sight Vocabulary

Answer 92

Words that are immediately recognized on the basis of familiarity with their overall shapes rather than decoded (such as danger, stop, poison and a child’s name)

Question 93

Bilingual

Answer 93

Using or capable of using two languages with nearly equal or equal facility

A century ago, it was believed that children raised in bilingual homes were delayed in their cognitive development. Theory - mental capacity is limited with people storing two linguistic systems crowding their mental abilities.

Today most linguistics consider it advantageous for children to be bilingual because knowledge of more than one language contributes to the complexity of a child’s cognitive processes.

Question 94

Truth or Fiction
Bilingual children encounter more academic problems than children who only speak one language

Answer 94

Fiction
It is not true that bilingual children encounter more academic problems than children who speak only one language.