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Human Growth & Development > Chapter 8: Exam 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 8: Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Two broad dimensions of child-rearing

A

*Warmth - Coldness
*Restrictiveness - Permissiveness

Upbringing, beliefs, or genetics reflect one’s parenting style.

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2
Q

Warm Parents

A

Affectionate (hug and kiss), caring and supportive, and less likely to use physical discipline

*Children are more likely to develop standards of conduct and a moral sense of consciousness.

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3
Q

Cold Parents

A

Few feelings of affection and complain about children’s behavior

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4
Q

Restrictive Parents

A

Impose rules and watch their children closely, consistent control and firm enforcement of rules having positive consequences for the child, combined with solid support and affection. (authoritative style)
***However, if physical punishment, interference, or intrusiveness arises, children may begin to become disobedient, rebellious, and have low cognitive levels

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5
Q

Permissive Parent

A

Supervise the children less, allow them to do what is “natural” like making noises, treat toys carelessly, and experiment with their bodies.

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6
Q

How parents enforce restrictions

A

Parents tend to use:
a. Induction method
b. Power-assertive method
c. Withdrawal of Love method

For enforcing restrictions

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7
Q

Inductive Method

A

Teach knowledge that will enable children to generate desirable behavior on their own with “reasoning” or explain why one kind of behavior is good, and another is not.

*Fosters Prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing

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8
Q

Power-assertive Method

A

Including physical punishment and denial of privileges. Justified by the statement, “Spare the rod, spoil the child” (involves the authoritarian parent as well as the child’s behavior)

*Associated with lower acceptance by peers, poorer grades, and more antisocial behavior in children

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9
Q

Withdrawal of Love Method

A

Isolate or ignore misbehaving children, can be more threatening than physical punishment.

*Fosters compliance but also instills guilt and anxiety

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10
Q

Baumrind Grid of four parenting styles

A

a. Authoritative
b. Authoritarian
c. Permissive - Indulgent
d. Rejecting - Neglecting

Parenting style may change due to situations

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11
Q

Authoritative

A

A child-rearing style in which parents are restrictive and demanding yet communicative and warm. Reason with children and provide strong support and feelings of love.

*Children are self-reliant and independent, have high self-esteem, high levels of activity, exploratory behaviors, and social competence

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12
Q

Authoritarian

A

A child-rearing style in which parents demand submission and obedience. Motto: “Because I say so.”

*Children are anxious, irritable, and restrained in their social interactions. As adolescents, they might be conforming and obedient but have low self-reliance and self-esteem. Maybe less friendly and less spontaneous.

  • Sons of these parents are relatively hostile and defiant.
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13
Q

Permissive - indulgent

A

A child-rearing style in which parents are warm and not restrictive. Easy-going and unconventional (warmth and support) accompanied by high nurturance.

*Children less competent in school but high in social behaviors.

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14
Q

Rejecting - Neglecting

A

A child-rearing style in which parents are neither restrictive and controlling nor supportive and responsive.

*Children are least competent, responsible, or mature. Less competent in school and show more misconduct and substance abuse than children of more restrictive, controlling parents

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15
Q

Power Assertion

A
  • Likely due to stress
  • Child’s aggressive behavior
  • When the parent believed the child knew the rules and could behave appropriately
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16
Q

Parenting Good Practices

A
  • Preschoolers comply better when asked to do something rather than to stop doing something (redirection)
  • Engage the child in something else when they are involved are displaying inappropriate behavior (redirection)
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17
Q

True or Fiction
Parents who demand mature behavior wind up with rebellious children, not mature children

A

Fiction
As long as parents are not severe with the children, consistent controls and firm enforcement of rules can have positive consequences for their children

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18
Q

Influence of Siblings

A

Serve many functions:
*physical care
*emotional support
*nurturance
*offering advice
*serving as role models
*providing social interaction that helps develop social skills
*making demand & imposing restrictions

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19
Q

Sibling’s Pros and Cons

A

Positive: Cooperation, teaching, and nurturance
Negative: Conflict, control, and competition

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20
Q

Conflict between siblings

A

Occur when:

  • Parents play favorites
  • The relationships between the parents and children are troubled
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21
Q

Adjusting to the birth of a sibling

A

Often a source of stress for preschoolers because of changes in family relationships

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22
Q

Regression

A

A return to behavior characteristic of earlier stages of development (clinging, crying, or toilet accidents)

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23
Q

Birth Order - First Born

A

Firstborns are more highly motivated to achieve than later-born children.

They appear to perform better academically and are more cooperative (obtain higher IQ & SAT scores)

Studies suggest that they are more adult-oriented and less aggressive

However, they show greater anxiety levels and somewhat less self-reliant

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24
Q

True or Fiction
First-born children are more likely motivated to achieve than later-born children

A

True
Research shows that first-born children are more motivated to achieve than later-born children. However, the difference is a group difference and does not apply to all first- or later-born children.

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25
Q

Birth Order - Later Born

A

*They may learn to be more aggressive in competing for the attention of their parents and older siblings.

*Self-concepts are lower than those of first-born or only children, but social skills they acquire from dealing with their family position seem to translate into greater popularity with peers.

*Tend to be more rebellious and liberal

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26
Q

Peer Relations

A

*Foster social skills - sharing, helping, taking turns, & dealing with conflict

*Groups teach how to lead and how to follow

  • Physical & Cognitive skills develops as well as emotional support

By age 2, children imitate one another’s play and engage in social games (like follow the leader). They begin to show preferences for particular playmates (as early signs of friendships)

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27
Q

Friendship

A

Characterized by shared positive experiences and feelings of attachment

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28
Q

Play-Child’s Play

A

*Meaningful, pleasurable, and internally motivated

*Helps promote motor skills and coordination

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29
Q

Dramatic Play

A

Play in which children enact social roles. Supports the development of cognitive qualities like curiosity, exploration, symbolic thinking, and problem solving

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30
Q

Piaget kinds of play that increase cognitive complexity

A
  • Functional Play
  • Symbolic Play
  • Constructive Play
  • Formal Games
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31
Q

Functional Play

A

Repetitive motor activity, such as rolling a ball, running and laughing

(Sensorimotor stage)

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32
Q

Symbolic Play

A

AKA: Pretend play, imaginative play, or dramatic play

End of the sensorimotor stage and increases during early childhood. Children create settings, characters, and scripts

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33
Q

Constructive Play

A

Children use objects or materials to draw something or make something, such as tower of blocks

34
Q

Formal Games

A

Games with rules (board games) involving motor skills, such as hopscotch, ball games involving sides or teams and video games.

35
Q

Parten 6 types of play among 2 & 5 year olds

A

*Unoccupied play
*Solitary play
*Onlooker play
*Parallel play
*Associative play
*Cooperative play

36
Q

Nonsocial play

A

Solitary forms of play

*Solitary play
*Onlooker Play

Children do not interact socially (2 - 3 years old)

37
Q

Social play

A

Play in which children interact with and are influenced by others

*Associative play
*Cooperative play

Becomes common by age 5, girls are more likely than boys to engage in social play

38
Q

Parallel Constructive Play

A

Many 4 and 5 year olds spend a good deal of time (working on puzzles or building blocks near other children)

39
Q

Gender Differences in Play

A

*Boys spend more time than girls in play groups of five or more children and in competitive play

*Girls are more likely than boys to engage in arts, crafts, and domestic play

40
Q

Prosocial Behavior

A

Behavior that benefits other people, generally without expectation or reward (aka altruism)

*Sharing, cooperating, helping others, and comforting others in distress

Linked to empathy and perspective taking by preschoolers and early school year children

41
Q

Empathy

A

Sensitivity to the feelings of others and is connected with sharing and cooperation

42
Q

Perspective Taking

A

Skills improve with age, and do so with prosocial skills.

Among children of the same age, those with better-developed perspective-taking abilities also show more prosocial behavior and less aggressive behavior.

43
Q

Influences of Prosocial Behavior

A

Peers of nursery school children who are cooperative, friendly, and generous respond more positively to them than they do to children whose behavior is self-centered.

44
Q

Aggression

A

Behavior intended to hurt or injure another person

45
Q

Aggressive Behavior Development Patterns

A
  • Preschoolers tend to use aggression to obtain the toys and situations they want
    (However, they do learn to resolve conflicts by sharing rather than fighting)

*By age 6 or 7 their aggression may become hostile and person-oriented (either by name-calling or physically attacking)

These patterns are generally stable and predictive of social and emotional problems later on (especially among young boys)

Aggressive children of both genders are more likely to to have criminal convictions as adults, to abuse their partners, and drive while drunk.

46
Q

Theories of Aggression

A

It appears to result from a complex interplay of biological factors and environmental factors (such as reinforcement & modeling)

47
Q

Genetic Factors

A

Maybe involved in aggressive behavior, including criminal and antisocial behavior

Genes may also do their work at least in part, through the male sex hormone testosterone - which is connected with feelings of self-confidence, high activity levels and the negative side - aggressiveness.

48
Q

Cognitive Research - Primary School Children
(Aggression Theory)

A

Found that children that believe in the legitimacy of aggression are more likely to behave aggressively when they are presented with social provocations

*They are found to be lacking in empathy and the ability to see things from the perspective of other people

*Fail to conceptualize the experiences of their victims and are thus less likely to inhibit aggressive impulses

49
Q

Social Cognitive Explanations
(Aggression Theory)

A

Focus on environmental factors such as reinforcement and observational learning

*When children repeatedly push, shove, and hit to grab toys or break into line, other children usually let them have their way. Thus creating rewards for acting aggressively makes the child continue the aggressive means.

*Physically aggressive parents serve as models for aggression and also stoke their children’s anger.

50
Q

True or Fiction
Children who are physically punished are more likely to be aggressive than children who are not

A

True
Perhaps punitive parents model punitive behavior and instill hostility in their children.

51
Q

Media Influences
Bandura & Ross Study

A

Suggests the powerful influence of televised models on children’s aggressive behavior.

52
Q

Observational Learning

A

Children learn from observation and TV violence supplies models of aggressive “skills” which children may acquire

53
Q

Disinhibition

A

Punishment inhibits behavior

54
Q

Disinhibit

A

To encourage a response that has been previously suppressed

*Conversely, media violence may disinhibit aggressive behavior, especially when characters “get away with it”

55
Q

Increased Arousal

A

Media violence and aggressive video games increase viewers’ levels of arousal. We are more likely to be aggressive under high levels of arousal.

56
Q

Priming of Aggressive Thoughts and Memories

A

Media violence “primes” or arouses aggressive ideas and memories

57
Q

Habituation

A

We become used to repeated stimuli. Children exposed to violence are more likely to assume that it is acceptable or normal and become desensitized.

58
Q

True or Fiction
There is no scientific evidence that violence in the media contributes to aggression

A

Fiction
Studies going back half a century show that children imitate violence they observe in the media

59
Q

Self-concept

A

One’s self-description and self-evaluation according to various categories, such as adolescent, or one’s gender and one’s skill
(Emerges gradually during infancy)

*One aspect of self-concept is self-esteem; children with high self-esteem are more likely to be securely attached and have parents who are attentive to their needs and show more prosocial behavior

60
Q

Categorical Self

A

Definitions of the self that refer to external traits

Children as young as 3 years old are able to describe themselves in terms of behavior, and internal states that occur often are fairly stable over time.

61
Q

Preschool children begin to make evaluative judgments about two aspects of themselves by age 4

A
  1. Cognitive and Physical Competence
  2. Social Acceptance by Peer & Parents

Becoming capable of self-regulation, controlling aggressive behavior, engaging on play with others, and focusing on cognitive tasks such as learning to count.

These capabilities are connected with the maturation of the brain and rearing practices of caregivers.

62
Q

Initiative Versus Guilt
(Erikson)

A

Refers to early childhood years as the stage of initiative versus guilt
(as they develop a separate sense of themselves, they move out into the world and take the initiative in learning new skills)

*Parents can help children develop and maintain a healthy sense of initiative by encouraging their attempts to learn, explore, and not being unholy critical, and punitive.

63
Q

Fears

A

Children’s fears change as they move from infancy into the preschool years

  • Children grow more fearful of failure and criticism in school and in social relationships
  • Girls report more fears and higher levels of anxiety than boys
64
Q

True or Fiction
The most common fear among preschoolers is fear of social disapproval

A

Fiction
Preschoolers are more likely to fear animals, imaginary creatures, the dark, and personal danger than social approval

65
Q

Stereotype

A

A fixed conventional idea about a group

*Creates demands and limits opportunities for both genders

66
Q

Gender Roles

A

A cluster of traits and behaviors that are considered stereotypical of females and males

67
Q

Gender-role stereotypes develops in stages:

A
  1. Children learn to label genders
    (2 to 2 1/2 years of age, can identify pictures of girls and boys)
  2. By age 3, they display knowledge of gender stereotypes of toys, clothing, work, and activities

*Generally agree that boys play with cars/trucks, help fathers, and tend to hit others

*Girls play with dolls, help mothers, and do not hit others

68
Q

Gender Differences

A

Girls show somewhat greater verbal ability than boys, whereas boys show somewhat greater visual-spatial ability than girls.

69
Q

Roles of Evolution and Heredity

A

Gender differences were fashioned by natural selection in response to problems in an adaptation that were repeatedly encountered by humans for over thousands of generations.

Genetic codes for traits helped our ancestors survive and reproduce structural gender differences such as those found in the brain and our body chemistry (hormones)

Question is, whether or not, evolution has also etched social and psychological gender differences in our genes

70
Q

Organization of the Brain

A

Research in rats:

Males use the hippocampus in both the left/right hemispheres when they are navigating mazes.

Females rely on the hippocampus in the right hemisphere along with the right prefrontal cortex (evaluating info and making plans)

Largely genetically determined

71
Q

Sex Hormone

A

Related to the prenatal levels of sex hormones

Researcher Auyeung, found higher-than-normal levels of testosterone in fetal environment (due to maternal stress) were related to more masculine-typed play among girls aged 8 1/2 years old.

Barrett found the same about girls but also that it decreased masculine-typed play in boys.

72
Q

Social Cognitive Theory

A

Consider both roles of rewards and punishments (reinforcements) in gender typing and how children learn from observing others and decide which behaviors are appropriate for them.

73
Q

Cognitive-Development Theory

A

Researcher Kohlberg, found that children form concepts about gender and then fit their behavior to the concepts (occur in stages and entwined with general cognitive development)

74
Q

Gender typing involves three concepts

A
  1. Gender Identity
  2. Gender Stability
  3. Gender Constancy
75
Q

Gender Identity

A

The knowledge that one is female or male

By age 3, many children can discriminate gender differences

76
Q

Gender Stability

A

The concept that one’s gender is unchanging

Developed by age 4 or 5

77
Q

True of Fiction
A 2 1/2-year-old may know that he is a boy but still think that he can grow to be a mommy

A

True
Yes, a 2 1/2 year old will likely have developed gender identity but not yet gender stability.

78
Q

Gender Constancy

A

The concept that one’s gender remains the same despite changes in appearance or behavior

By the age of 5 to 7, recognize that people’s gender does not change, even if they change their dress or behavior.

79
Q

Gender-Schema-Theory

A

The view that one’s knowledge of the gender schema in one’s society guides one’s assumption of gender-typed preferences and behavior patterns.

*Organizing their perceptions of the world (in terms of gender)

  • Cluster of concepts about male/female physical traits, personality traits, and behaviors.
  • Children come to see themselves as female/male as they begin to seek information concerning gender-typed traits and try to see and live up to them.
80
Q

Typical Sibling Rivalry

A

Can contribute to better social competence and development of self-identity.

Human Growth & Development (15 decks)

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