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chapter 9 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is intuition, and how can the availability heuristic, overconfidence, belief perseverance, and framing influence our decisions and judgments?

A

Intuition is the effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thoughts we often use instead of systematic reasoning. Heuristics enable snap judgments. Using the availability heuristic, we judge the likelihood of things based on how readily they come to mind, which often leads us to fear the wrong things. Overconfidence can lead us to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs. When a belief we have formed and explained has been discredited, belief perseverance may cause us to cling to that belief. A remedy for belief perseverance is to consider how we might have explained an opposite result. Framing is the way a question or statement is worded. Subtle wording differences can dramatically alter our responses.

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1
Q

Forest-dwelling chimpanzees have become natural tool users. They even select different tools for different purposes. This is evidence that they are shaped by _____ when they solve problems.

A

reinforcment

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1
Q

By the age of _____, an infant’s typical babbling has changed so that a trained ear can identify the language of the household.

  1. 6 months
  2. 12 months
  3. 8 months
  4. 10 months
A
  • 10 months
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2
Q

Impaired use of language is called:

  1. aphasia.
  2. intuition.
  3. heuristic.
  4. prototype.
A
  • aphasia.
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3
Q

What do we know about animal thinking?

A

Researchers make inferences about other species’ consciousness and intelligence based on behavior. The main focus of such research has been the great apes, but other species have also been studied. Evidence to date shows that other species can use concepts, numbers, and tools, and they can transmit learning from one generation to the next (cultural transmission). They also show insight, self-awareness, altruism, cooperation, grief, and an ability to read intentions.

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3
Q

The average person knows about _____ words by the time of his or her high school graduation.

  1. 60,000
  2. 30,000
  3. 90,000
  4. 120,000
A
  • 60,000
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3
Q

One major impediment to problem solving is _______________, which is the inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.

  1. association learning
  2. heuristic searching
  3. fixation
  4. telegraphic thinking
A
  • fixation
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3
Q

Pablo searches for a screwdriver that is nowhere to be found. However, he fails to recognize that a coin in his pocket would easily turn the screw. His oversight best illustrates:

  1. the framing effect.
  2. belief perseverance.
  3. the availability heuristic.
  4. functional fixedness.
A

functional fixedness.

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4
Q

If someone estimates the likelihood of events based on the ease with which they retrieve them from memory, they presume such events are common. This is called the _____.

A

availability heuristic

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5
Q

This controls muscle movements involved in speech.

  1. Broca’s area
  2. morphemes
  3. Wernicke’s area
  4. phonemes
A
  • Broca’s area
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5
Q

At the zoo, a chimpanzee has figured out how to use the right kind of stones to crack open the nuts thrown to him by spectators. His problem solving has been shaped by:

  1. punishment.
  2. reinforcement.
  3. observation.
  4. functional fixedness.
A
  • reinforcement.
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5
Q

Some athletes use mental practice to try to improve performance. In one study, a group of people threw darts 24 times at a target. Next, half of the group mentally practiced throwing 24 darts. Finally, the entire group threw 24 more darts. What were the results?

  1. Everyone went up equally in performance.
  2. Those who had rehearsed mentally showed improvement.
  3. Everyone declined equally in performance.
  4. Those who had rehearsed mentally did not improve.
A
  • Those who had rehearsed mentally showed improvement.
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6
Q

The first stage of speech development is the:

  1. prototype stage.
  2. grammar stage.
  3. babbling stage.
  4. one-word stage.
A

Babbling stage

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7
Q

_____________, most children are in the one-word stage.

  1. Around their first birthday
  2. At 8 months
  3. At 18 months
  4. At 20 months
A

Around their first birthday

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8
Q

The _____ is the smallest unit of language that carries meaning.

  1. phoneme
  2. prototype
  3. morpheme
  4. syntax
A
  • morpheme
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10
Q

What is cognition, and what are the functions of concepts?

A

Cognition refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. We use concepts, mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people, to simplify and order the world around us. We form most concepts around prototypes, or best examples of a category.

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10
Q

Do other animals share our capacity for language?

A

A number of chimpanzees have learned to communicate with humans by signing or by pushing buttons wired to a computer, have developed vocabularies of nearly 200 words, have communicated by stringing these words together, have taught their skills to younger animals, and have some understanding of syntax. But only humans communicate in complex sentences. Nevertheless, primates’ and other animals’ impressive abilities to think and communicate challenge humans to consider what this means about the moral rights of other species.

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11
Q

Sharon’s car accident was both emotionally and physically traumatic. She developed aphasia, which left her without the ability to express herself linguistically, due to damage to her:

  1. right temporal lobe.
  2. left temporal lobe.
  3. right frontal lobe.
  4. left frontal lobe.
A

left frontal lobe.

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13
Q

How do we acquire language?

A

Language development’s timing varies, but all children follow the same sequence. Receptive language (the ability to understand what is said to or about you) develops before productive language (the ability to produce words). At about 4 months of age, infants babble, making sounds found in languages from all over the world. By about 10 months, their babbling contains only the sounds found in their household language. Around 12 months of age, children begin to speak in single words. This one-word stage evolves into two-word (telegraphic) utterances before their second birthday, after which they begin speaking in full sentences.

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14
Q

What is the relationship between language and thinking, and what is the value of thinking in images?

A

Although Benjamin Lee Whorf’s linguistic determinism hypothesis suggested that language determines thought, it is more accurate to say that language influences thought. Different languages embody different ways of thinking, and immersion in bilingual education can enhance thinking. We often think in images when we use nondeclarative (procedural) memory—our automatic memory system for motor and cognitive skills and classically conditioned associations. Thinking in images can increase our skills when we mentally practice upcoming events.

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14
Q

We more quickly recognize that a dog is a mammal than that a whale is a mammal because a dog more closely resembles our _____ of a mammal.

A

prototype

16
Q

How do we acquire language?

A

Linguist Noam Chomsky has proposed that all human languages share a universal grammar—the basic building blocks of language—and that humans are born with a predisposition to learn language. We acquire specific language through learning as our biology and experience interact. Childhood is a critical period for learning to speak and/or sign fluently. This is an important consideration for parents of deaf children, who might master oral communication if given a cochlear implant during this critical period. Deaf culture advocates oppose such implants on the grounds that deafness is a difference, not a disability.

17
Q

“When beginning a sentence with an introductory phrase or a dependent clause, include a comma.” This is a rule of _____.

A

grammar

18
Q

When we group similar objects, events, ideas, or people in our mind, we have formed a(n) _____.

A

concept

20
Q

_____ allow us to quickly categorize new objects and events with little cognitive effort.

A

Concepts

21
Q

In 1874, Carl Wernicke discovered that damage to a specific area of the left temporal lobe limited a person’s ability to:

  1. read.
  2. speak.
  3. understand.
  4. organize.
A
  • understand.
22
Q

What cognitive strategies assist our problem solving, and what obstacles hinder it?

A

An algorithm is a methodical, logical rule or procedure (such as a step-by-step description for evacuating a building during a fire) that guarantees a solution to a problem. A heuristic is a simpler strategy (such as running for an exit if you smell smoke) that is usually speedier than an algorithm but is also more error-prone. Insight is not a strategy-based solution, but rather a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem.

Obstacles to problem solving include confirmation bias, which predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses, and fixation, such as mental set, which may prevent us from taking the fresh perspective that would lead to a solution.

22
Q

What are the structural components of a language?

A

Phonemes are a language’s basic units of sound. Morphemes are the elementary units of meaning. Grammar—the system of rules that enables us to communicate—includes semantics (rules for deriving meaning) and syntax (rules for ordering words into sentences).

24
Q

According to the text, Rico is a border collie that has a _____ vocabulary for objects. Researchers assume that he can infer that an unfamiliar sound refers to an object he’s never seen before.

  1. 50-word
  2. 25-word
  3. 100-word
  4. 200-word
A

200

25
Q
A
26
Q

The linguistic determinism hypothesis could be challenged by the finding that:

  1. the Inuit language contains a number of words for snow, whereas English has only one.
  2. chimps can learn to communicate spontaneously by using sign language.
  3. infants’ babbling contains many phonemes that do not occur in their own language and that they therefore cannot have heard.
  4. people with no word for a certain shape can still perceive that shape accurately.
A

people with no word for a certain shape can still perceive that shape accurately.

28
Q

A potential source of irrationality is ______________, our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence.

  1. availability heuristic
  2. functional fixedness
  3. belief perseverance
  4. belief bias
A

belief bias

28
Q

The ___________ is the smallest unit of language that carries meaning.

  1. phoneme
  2. morpheme
  3. syntax
  4. prototype
A

morpheme

29
Q

How do smart thinkers use intuition?

A

Smart thinkers welcome their intuitions (which are usually adaptive), but when making complex decisions they gather as much information as possible and then take time to let their two-track mind process all available information. As people gain expertise, they grow adept at making quick, shrewd judgments.

31
Q

What are the milestones in language development?

A

Language development’s timing varies, but all children follow the same sequence. Receptive language (the ability to understand what is said to or about you) develops before productive language (the ability to produce words). At about 4 months of age, infants babble, making sounds found in languages from all over the world. By about 10 months, their babbling contains only the sounds found in their household language. Around 12 months of age, children begin to speak in single words. This one-word stage evolves into two-word (telegraphic) utterances before their second birthday, after which they begin speaking in full sentences.

33
Q

Unlike English, which has a rich vocabulary for self-focused emotions such as anger, ____________ has more words for interpersonal emotions such as sympathy.

  1. Chinese
  2. Russian
  3. Polish
  4. Japanese
A

Japanese

34
Q

Whorf’s linguistic determination hypothesis states that:

  1. the size of a person’s vocabulary reflects his or her intelligence.
  2. language is partially an innate ability.
  3. our language shapes our thinking.
  4. language is primarily a learned ability.
A

our language shapes our thinking.

36
Q

The easier it is for a person to remember a circumstance in which a friend betrayed him, the more he expects such an event to recur. This best illustrates the impact of:

  1. the availability heuristic.
  2. functional fixedness.
  3. the representativeness heuristic.
  4. framing.
A
  • the availability heuristic.
38
Q

A baby’s ability to comprehend speech is known as receptive language; his or her ability to produce words is known as:

  1. productive language.
  2. morphemes.
  3. grammar.
  4. confirmation bias.
A
  • productive language.
39
Q

What brain areas are involved in language processing and speech?

A

Two important language-and speech-processing areas are Broca’s area, a region of the frontal lobe that controls language expression, and Wernicke’s area, a region in the left temporal lobe that controls language reception. Language processing is spread across other brain areas as well, where different neural networks handle specific linguistic subtasks.

40
Q

_____ refers to children’s ability to learn to inhibit one language while using their other language.

  1. Trilingual advantage
  2. Monolingual advantage
  3. Multilingual advantage
  4. Bilingual advantage
A

Bilingual advantage

41
Q

The Hopi do not have a past tense for their verbs. According to _________, this suggests that they cannot readily think about the past, because language imposes conceptions of reality.

  1. Pinker
  2. Chomsky
  3. Skinner
  4. Whorf
A

Chomsky

42
Q

The way an issue is posed or how an issue is presented can significantly affect decisions and judgments; this is known as _____.

A

framing

43
Q

Sinjon is fluent in both English and French. His parents spoke both languages to him when he was a very young child. Sinjon has an amazing capacity to inhibit his attention to irrelevant information, which helps him as he does simultaneous interpretation. Linguists would suggest that his ability to focus may be caused by a bilingual advantage resulting from:

  1. his increased word power.
  2. his spatial intelligence.
  3. his practice at interpretation.
  4. reciprocal determinism.
A
  • his increased word power.
44
Q

Shawna is about to graduate with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and is planning to attend graduate school. Her primary interests are in how people are able to store new information into memory, problem solving, and how people communicate with others. She is mostly interested in mental activities known as:

  1. intuition.
  2. cognition.
  3. availability heuristics.
  4. prototypes.
A
  • cognition.
45
Q

Many instructors use the generic pronoun “he” when referring to psychologists and the generic pronoun “she” when referring to administrative assistants. In your mind, you automatically think of psychologists as men and administrative assistants as women. Why?

  1. It is caused by availability statistics.
  2. Linguistic determinism predicts that your thinking shapes your language.
  3. Classical conditioning causes you to pair the gender with the occupation.
  4. Linguistic determinism predicts that language shapes your thinking.
A

Linguistic determinism predicts that language shapes your thinking.

46
Q

To say the word bat, people utter the _____ b, a, and t.

A

phonemes

48
Q

In English, most _____ are combinations of two or more phonemes.

A

morphemes

49
Q

When we estimate the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, we presume such events are common. This is called a(n):

  1. belief heuristic.
  2. belief bias.
  3. representativeness heuristic.
  4. availability heuristic.
A

availability heuristic.

50
Q

When you add “ed” to the word “work,” you are referring to the past tense. This illustrates an English language rule of _____.

A

semantics

51
Q

Scott is a young engineer who just started work at a company that has several seasoned engineers on staff. During a regular meeting several of these seasoned engineers are discussing how to solve a problem. After about 15 minutes of listening to this, Scott jumps up and yells “Eureka, I’ve got it.” This is an example of _____.

A

insight

52
Q

When Judy’s professor failed to recognize that Judy had her hand raised to answer a question, Judy began to think her professor was unfriendly. Judy later learned that the professor’s limited vision kept him from seeing her raised hand, but she continued to think he was unfriendly. Judy’s reaction best illustrates:

  1. belief perseverance.
  2. category hierarchies.
  3. functional fixedness.
  4. the framing effect.
A
  • belief perseverance.

Psychology (9 decks)

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