chapter 9 Flashcards
left hemis vs right hemis damage? Which kind of memory?
left-hemisphere damage can result in selective impairment in verbal memory, whereas right-hemisphere damage may result in nonverbal-memory impairment - working memory
anterograde amnesia? which kind of memory impairment?
forward-going, the loss of memory for events that occur after a lesion, you can’t remember what just happened to you. It leads to the inability to learn new things. You can’t form new long-term memories
retrograde amnesia
A loss of memory for events and knowledge that occurred before a lesion or trauma. Sometimes retrograde amnesia is temporally limited, extending back only a few minutes or hours. In severe cases, it is extensive, sometimes encompassing almost the entire previous life span.
modal memory (Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin)
proposes that information is first stored in sensory memory (a few ms to seconds). After which, items selected by attentional processes can move into short-term storage (seconds to minutes). Once in short-term memory, if the item is rehearsed, it can be moved into long-term memory (minutes to years)
digit span test? What about H.M.?
A typical test to evaluate short-term memory by remembering a list of digits and, after a delay of a few seconds, repeating the numbers. The lists can be from 2 to 5 or more digits long, and the maximum number that a person can recall and report is known as the person’s digit span ability.
H.M. also had normal digit span abilities. But, he did poorly on digit span tests that required the acquisition of new long-term memories.
E.E. / K.F. vs H.M. memory deficit conclusion
E.E. showed below-normal short-term memory ability but served long-term memory—a pattern similar to (info from sensory memory to long-term memory)
K.F.’s. Patients like H.M. have preserved short-term memory but deficits in the ability to form new long-term memories. If this finding is true, short-term memory might not be required in order to form long- term memory.
Working memory?
Working memory represents a limited-capacity store for retaining information over the short term (maintenance) and for performing mental operations on the contents of this store (manipulation). For example, we can remember (maintain) a list of numbers, and we can also add (manipulate) them in our head by using working memory.
central executive mechanism? which kind of memory?
a central executive mechanism controls 2 subordinate systems: the phonological loop, which encodes information phonologically (acoustically) in working memory; and the visuospatial sketch pad, which encodes information visually in working memory.
it is modality specific
Brodmann area 40 vs Brodmann area 44
Lateral view of the left hemisphere, indicating that there is an information loop involved in phonological working memory ( flowing between BA44 and the supramarginal gyrus (BA40).
Patients with lesions of the left supramarginal gyrus (Brodmann area 40) have deficits in phonological working memory, so that they cannot hold strings of words in working memory. The rehearsal process of the phonological loop involves a region in the left premo- tor area (Brodmann area 44).
evidence for dissociations in the brain regions activated during the performance of spatial VS verbal working memory tasks
Changes in local cerebral blood flow on working memory tasks, measured with PET.
Verbal (a) and spatial (b) working memory tasks were tested in healthy volunteers. The verbal task corresponded primarily to activity in the left hemisphere, whereas the spatial task lateralized mainly to the right hemisphere.
Episodic vs semantic memory
Episodic and semantic memories are forms of declarative memories
Episodic memory is the result of rapid associative learning in that the what, where, when, and who of a single episode—its context—become associated and bound together and can be retrieved from memory as a single personal recollection. For example, the memory of falling off your new red bicycle (what) on Christmas day (when), badly skinning your elbow on the asphalt driveway (where), and your mother (who) running over to comfort you is an episodic memory.
Semantic memory, in contrast, is objective knowledge that is factual in nature but does not include the con- text in which it was learned. For instance, you may know that corn is grown in Iowa, but you most likely don’t remember when or where you learned that fact. Semantic memory reflects knowing facts and concepts such as how to tell time, who the lead guitarist is for the Rolling Stones, and where Lima is located.
Procedural memory? Which part of brain?
One form of nondeclarative memory is procedural memory, which is required for tasks that include learning motor skills—such as riding a bike, typing, and swimming—and cognitive skills.
Involves basal ganglia and cerebellum!
Basal ganglia - habit based behavior (cross the street)
Priming effect? Which kind of memory and priming can be?
a form of non-declarative memory, which occurs when an individual’s exposure to a certain stimulus influences his or her response to a subsequent stimulus, without any awareness of the connection. For instance, if you were to see a picture of a bicycle’s handlebars from an odd angle, you would more quickly recognize them as part of a bike if you had just seen a typical picture of a bike. If you had not, you might find them more difficult to identify. Priming can be perceptual, conceptual, or semantic.
Word priming study
is a perceptual priming of non-declarative memory. Perceptual priming acts within the perceptual representation system (PRS). In the PRS, the structure and form of objects and words can be primed by prior experience. For example, participants can be presented with lists of real words — for example, “t_ou_h_s” for thoughts. These fragments can be from either new words (not present in the original list) or old words (originally present). The participants are asked to simply complete the fragments. Participants are significantly better and faster at correctly completing fragments for words that were also presented in the initial list; they show priming.
Classical conditioning
habituation vs sensitization
Nonassociative learning: habituation and sensitization
Habituation - the response to an unchanging stimulus decreases over time. For instance, the first time you use an electric toothbrush, your entire mouth tingles, but after a few uses you no longer feel a response.
Sensitization - a response increases with repeated presentations of the stimulus. The classic example is rubbing your arm. At first it merely creates a feeling of warmth. If you continue, however, it starts to hurt, which is an adaptive response.
partial report paradigm (Sperling)
Experimental method, when humans are able to recall between 4-6 items in a single glance, if you will. The duration of information in the sensory store is very brief (a few hundred milliseconds) so, as observers report what they see, items in the sensory store fade away. By the time observers report on 4 or 5 items, the sensory store information is gone and recall is finished.
1) A G S (9 letters total)
2) A G Q (L with line)
Mismatch field
responses are elicited by the presentation of a rare devi- ant stimulus, such as a high-frequency tone and more commonly presented low-frequency tones.
Data collected by MEG, 2 stimuli match or mismatch (2 sounds are same or deviant). When we past 10 s there is no distinction between 2 sounds, no mismatch, echoic memory gone after 10 s, which you can’t see on MEG. This result can be interpreted as evidence for an automatic process in auditory sensory (echoic) memory that has a time course on the order of about 10s.
short-term memory
How can short term memories be better remembered?
-low duration, low capacity
-7 + or- capacity “rule” that most people can remember that many digits at a time
- duration 30s (w/o rehearsal)
Chunking - it’s easier to chunk numbers together rather than remember them individually.
Fuster’s delay response task? Which part of brain?
Looking at center of screen light line up, during delay monkey has to remember where the light was, after which monkey can move eyes to light – gets reward. Monkey doesn’t remember the flash of light, when neurons stop firing.
Dorsal-lateral prefrontal cortex is engaged
C – q phase, D – delay period before the monkey allowed to respond, r – response period when monkey responds. Different cells different things that monkey has to remember. Once cells would stop firing – the info is lost (gone).
H.M. mirror tracing task
- H.M. could learn some things: tasks that involved motor/perceptual skills or procedures (non-declarative memory, implicit) became easier over time, though he could not remember practicing the new skills (declarative memory - episodic).
- Mirror tracing task: non declarative memory.
He was able to trace a shape by look at a mirror, overtime he got better at the task but didn’t consciously remember practicing.
Amygdala function? Which memory?
Responsible for the response and memory of emotions, especially fear; part of the limbic system
lose amygdala – no fear conditioning
Nondeclarative memory – fear learning;
no hippocampus still can learn;
Delayed nonmatch-to-sample task
A monkey is placed in a box with a retractable door in the front. While the door is closed so that the monkey cannot see out, a food reward is placed under an object. The door is opened, and the monkey is allowed to pick up the object to get the food. The door is then closed again, and the same object plus a new object are put in position. The new object now covers the food reward, and after a delay, the door is reopened and the monkey must pick up the new object to get the food reward. If the monkey picks up the old object, there is no reward. With training, the monkey picks the new, or nonmatching, object.
Fear conditioning
Fear responses to (US) pathway
In this pathway, the sensory information projects to the thalamus, which then sends the information to the sensory cortex for a finer analysis. The sensory cortex projects the results of this analysis to the amygdala (innate fear: US). Innately feared stimulus is presented (ex: shock), which triggers everything that will happen in response to fear, behaviorally, hormonally and autonomically, (ex: freezing to a shock, releasing hormones, fight or flight response)
Mechanism of Habituation of aplysia (invertebrate slug) Gill-Withdrawal Reflex
Touch syphon - animal pull their gills and tries to protect;
Habituation - pulls gills less and less until it stops.
Simple reflex arc, neuron responds to touching the syphone; motor neurons fire – gills triggered; motor neurons fire less and less as habituation occurs, it releases less neurotransmitter
AMPA and NMDA receptors (amygdala?)
AMPA: detects glutamate receptor that controls a sodium (Na) channel and depolarize post-synaptic neuron
When you activate AMPA receptors, you allow glutamate to depolarize the cell (postsynaptic neuron).
NMDA: glutamate receptor that controls a calcium channel is blocked by Mg 2+ ions, which prevents other ions from entering the postsynaptic cell; involved in long-term potentiation
NMDA are Hebb’s law detectors, they only allow Ca influx, when both cells (presynaptic and postsynaptic) are firing together, which triggers LTP
When you have NMDA receptor (antagonist) present in the amygdala, you are not scared of tone, because we can’t change the strength of the synaptic connection
Fear conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) pathway
What does this response show us about the brain?
-learned fear responses: conditioned stimulus is heard and processed by the auditory cortex and info is sent to basolateral amygdala.
- Fear conditioning causes basolateral amygdala to trigger the central nucleus to make the response prior to the unconditioned stimulus, shows plasticity
