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AP Biology Mr. Maiorana > Chapter 9-10 quiz > Flashcards

Chapter 9-10 quiz Flashcards

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1
Q

Why is cell division important to multicellular organisms?

A

It enables them to develop from a single cell and, once fully grown, to renew, repair, and replace cells as needed

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2
Q

What is the continuity of life based on?

A

cell division

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3
Q

What best distinguishes living and nonliving organisms?

A

The ability of something to produce their own

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4
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

the life of a cell from the time it is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division into 2 daughter cells

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5
Q

What is the most common result of cell division?

A

The distribution of identical genetic material(DNA) to two daughter cells

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6
Q

What is a genome?

A

All the DNA in a cell

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7
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

What DNA is packaged into in cells, consisted of DNA associated with proteins to maintain structure

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8
Q

What is chromatin?

A

A complex of DNA and protein that make up Eukaryotic chromosomes

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9
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

nonreproductive cells that have 2 sets of chromosomes

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10
Q

What are gametes?

A

reproductive cells(sperm and eggs) that have one set of chromosomes

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11
Q

What are sister chromatids?

A

joined, identical copies of the original chromosome

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12
Q

What is the centromere?

A

Where the chromatids are most closely attached, joined by proteins that are bound to the centromeric DNA sequences

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13
Q

What, in short, is done in preparation of cell division?

A

DNA is replicated and chromosomes condense

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14
Q

How/when do sister chromatids become chromosomes?

A

Once the sister chromatids have moved and separated into two nuclei, they are chromosomes

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15
Q

When are mitosis and meiosis used?

A

Mitosis is used in Eukaryotic cell division, meiosis is used to produce gametes

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16
Q

What does meiosis yield?

A

nonidentical daughter cells with only one set of chromosomes, half as many as he parent cell

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17
Q

What is the interphase?

A

The phase of the cell cycle including cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell growth

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18
Q

What phases is the interphase divided into?

A
  1. G1 phase-“first gap”, growth
  2. S phase-“synthesis”, growth and duplication
  3. G2 phase-“second gap”, growth
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19
Q

What are the phases of mitosis?

A
  1. Prophase
  2. Prometaphase
  3. Metaphase
  4. Anaphase
  5. Telophase
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20
Q

How many chromosomes so gametes and somatic cells have?

A

Somatic: 46
Gametes: 23

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21
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

The division of the cytoplasm immediately following mitosis

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22
Q

What happens in G2 of interphase?(mitosis)

A
  • Nuclear envelope forms
  • 2 centrosomes have formed by duplication of a single centrosome. The centrosome organize the microtubules of the spindle in animal cells
  • Chromosome duplicated in the S phase have NOT condensed
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23
Q

What happens in the prophase(mitosis)?

A
  • Chromosomes begin to condense
  • Each duplicated chromosome appears as identical sister chromatids joined at their centromeres
  • Mitotic spindle forms
  • Centrosomes move away
  • nucleoli appear
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24
Q

What happens in the prometaphase?(mitosis)

A
  • Nuclear envelope disappears
  • Microtubules enter the nuclear area
  • Chromatids condense further
  • Each pair of chromatids now has a kinetochore
  • Some microtubules attach to the kinetochores
  • Nonkinetochores interact with those from the opposite side of the spindle
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25
Q

What happens in the metaphase of mitosis?

A
  • Centrosomes have moved to opposite poles
  • Metaphase plate forms
  • All kinetochore microtubules are connected to kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles
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26
Q

What happens in the anaphase of mitosis?

A
  • Phase begins when cohesion proteins are broken, separating chromatids and making chromosomes and bringing the new daughter chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell
  • Cell elongates due to kinetochores
  • By the end of this phase the two ends of the cell are equivalent and have complete collections of chromosomes
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27
Q

What happens in the Telophase of Mitosis?

A
  • 2 daughter nuclei form and nuclear envelopes form from fragments of the parent’s nuclear envelope and other portions of the endomembrane system
  • Nucleoli reappear
  • Chromosomes become less condensed
  • Any remaining spindle microtubules are depolymerized
  • Mitosis is complete after this phase
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28
Q

What happens in cytokinesis(mitosis)?

A
  • Starts during late telophase
  • Cleavage furrow develops in animal cells, cell is pinched in two
  • In plant cells, a cell plate forms
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29
Q

What is the mitotic spindle?

A

A structure made of fibers made of microtubules and associated proteins that controls chromosome movement during mitosis. In animal cells, their assembly begins in the centrosome

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30
Q

What is an aster?

A

A radial array of short microtubules extending from each centrosome

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31
Q

What are the parts of the mitotic spindle?

A

Centrosomes, spindle microtubules, and he asters

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32
Q

What are kinetochores?

A

Protein complexes that assemble on sections of DNA at centromeres

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33
Q

What are centrosomes?

A

A subcellular region containing material that functions throughout the cell cycle to organize the cell’s microtubules

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34
Q

What is responsible for elongating a cell in anaphase? how does this work?

A

nonkinetochore microtubules, they overlap extensively during the metaphase, and motor protein attached to the microtubules walk them away from each other and push the spindle poles apart

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35
Q

What causes a cleavage furrow to form and pinch into two parts?

A

actin microfilaments interact with myosin molecules to form a ring around the cleavage furrow and contract and pull like a drawstring

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36
Q

How is a cell plate formed?

A

Vesicles derived from the golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the middle of the cell where they coalesce, forming a cell plate.

37
Q

How to prokaryotes reproduce?

A

Binary fission(asexual)

38
Q

What is the likely origin of mitosis and why? what supports this hypothesis?

A

Binary fission, because prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes. The fact that some proteins used in binary fission are related to eukaryotic mitosis proteins support this

39
Q

What is the origin of replication?

A

The site in binary fission where the single chromosome replicates, resulting in 2 daughter cells that end up dividing

40
Q

What controls the frequency if cell division?

A

regulation at the molecular level

41
Q

What drives the cell cycle?

A

specific signaling molecules present in the cytoplasm

42
Q

What are checkpoints?

A

specific points where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is recieved

43
Q

What is the G1 phase checkpoint important?

A

If the cell receives a go ahead at this checkpoint, it will complete the S, G2 and M phases and divide. If not, it will enter the G0 phase

44
Q

What is the cell cycle regulated?

A

A set of regulatory proteins and protein complexes including kinases and proteins called cyclins

45
Q

What is the internal signal that occurs at the M phase checkpoint?

A

Anaphase does not begin if any kinetochores remained unattached to spindle microtubules. Attachment of all kinetochores activates a regulatory complex which activates the enzyme separase that allows sister chromatids to separate, triggering the anaphase. This ensures daughter cells dont end up with missing or extra chromosomes

46
Q

What are growth factors?

A

Proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide, external signals

47
Q

What is density-dependent inhibition?

A

Crowded cells stop dividing

48
Q

What is anchorage dependence?

A

An external most animal cells exhibit where they must be attached to a substratum in order to divide

49
Q

How is a normal cell converted to a cancerous cell?

A

A process called transformation, where cancer cells not eliminated by the immune system form tumors

50
Q

What are malignant tumors and what do they do?

A

Tumors that invade surrounding tissues and they metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form other additional tumors

51
Q

What is heredity?

A

The transmission of traits from one generation to the next

52
Q

What is variation?

A

The differences in appearances that offspring show from parents and siblings

53
Q

How are genes passed to the next generation?

A

Gametes(sperm and eggs)

54
Q

What is a locus?

A

A gene’s position in a chromosome

55
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

A single individual passes genes to its offspring without fusion of gametes

56
Q

What is a clone?

A

A group of genetically identical individuals from the same parent

57
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

Two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents

58
Q

What is a life cycle?

A

The generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism

59
Q

What is karyotype?

A

An ordered display of the pairs of chromosomes from a cell

60
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

Aka homologs, they are the two chromosomes in each pair

61
Q

What are the characteristics of chromosomes in a homologous pair?

A

They are he same length and shape and carry genes controlling the same inherited characters. Each pair includes one chromosome from each parent

62
Q

What are sex chromosomes? what makes a male or female?

A

Sex chromosomes determine the sex of an individual, they are called x and y. Females have XX and males have XY

63
Q

What are autosomes?

A

The 22 pairs of chromosomes that arent sex cells

64
Q

What is a diploid cell?

A

(2N) a diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes(46 in humans)

65
Q

What is a haploid cell?

A

(n) a gamete containing a single set of chromosomes(23 in humans)

66
Q

What is fertilization?

A

The union of gametes(sperm and egg)

67
Q

What is a zygote?

A

A fertilized egg that has one set of chromosomes from each parent

68
Q

What is special about the production of gametes?

A

They are the only types of human cells produced through meiosis rather than mitosis

69
Q

What are gametes supposed to do once they are produced?

A

Fuse with another gamete to form a diploid zygote that divides by mitosis to develop a multicellular organism

70
Q

How are gametes produced?

A

The develop from specialized germ cells in the ovaries in females or testes in males.

71
Q

Why are gametes produced through meiosis?

A

To counterbalance the doubling of the number of chromosomes that happens during fertilization

72
Q

What is the alternation of generations?

A

Experienced by plants and some algae, it is a cycly where a multicellular diploid stage called a sporophyte produces a haploid cell called a spore. The spores divide mitotically to produce gametophytes, which give rise to gametes by mitosis. The two haploids fuse into a diploid sporophyte through fertilization and the cycle continues

73
Q

What is the third type of life cycle?

A

Carried out by most fungi and some protists, gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote, the go through meiosis without a multicellular diploid offspring developing. The meiosis produces either haploid unicellular organisms or a haploid multicellular adult organism

74
Q

What happens during prophase 1?

A
  • Chromosomes begin to condense, homologs loosely pair along their lengths
  • Synapsis crossing over takes place
  • Synaptonemal complex dissembles in mid-prophase, chromosomes in each pair move apart slightly
  • Chiasmata form
  • Centrosome movement, spindle formation, nuckear envelope breakdown just like in mitosis
75
Q

What is crossing over?

A

A genetic rearrangement between nonsister chromatids occurs involving the exchange of corresponding segments of DNA molecules

76
Q

What are chiasmata?

A

X shaped regions the point where a crossover has occurred. Sister chromatids are held together but one of them is part of the other homolog

77
Q

What happens during metaphase 1?

A
  • Homologous chromosomes are arranged at the metaphase plate with one chromosome in each pair facing the pole
  • Both chromatids of one pair are attached to kinetochore microtubules from one pole, the chromatids of the other homolog are attached to the opposite pole
78
Q

What happens in Anaphase 1?

A
  • Breakdown of proteins responsible for sister chromatid cohesion in the arms allows homologs to separate
  • Homologs move toward opposite poles, guided by spindles
  • Sister chromatid cohesion persists at centromere, causing them to move toward the pole as a unit
79
Q

What happens during telophase 1/cytokinesis?

A
  • At the beginning, each half of the cell has a complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes, each chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids. One or both chromatids contain regions of nonsister chromatid DNA
  • Cytominesis occurs simultaneously, forming 2 haploid daughter cells
  • Animal cells form cleavage furrows, plant cells form cell plates
  • In some species chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form
  • No chromosome duplication occurs between Meiosis 1 and 2
80
Q

What happens during prophase II?

A
  • Spindle apparatus forms

* Later in this phase, chromosomes(still composed of 2 sister chromatids) move towards metaphase II plate

81
Q

What happens during metaphase II?

A
  • Chromosomes are positioned on metaphase plate
  • The two sister chromatids are notidentical bc of crossing over in meiosis 1
  • Kinetochores of sister chromatids are attached to microtubules extending from opposite poles
82
Q

What happens during anaphase II?

A

•Breakdown if proteins holding the sister chromatids together at the centromere allows chromatids to separate, chromatids move toward opposite poles as individual chromosomes

83
Q

What happens during telophase II/cytokinesis?

A
  • Nuclei form, chromosomes decondense, cytokinesis occurs
  • 4 daughter cells, each with a haploid(unduplicated) set of chromosomes is the result
  • The 4 daughter cells are genetically different from each other and the parent cell
84
Q

What is synapsis?

A

A state where paired homologs become physically connected to each other along their lengths by the synaptonemal complex

85
Q

What are the differences between meiosis and mitosis?

A
  1. Meiosis reduces number if chromosome sets from 2 to 1, mitosis conserves the number
  2. Meiosis produce genetically different daughter cells, mitosis producers genetically identical cells
86
Q

What 3 events occur in meiosis that are unique to it?

A
  1. Synapsis and crossing
  2. Homologous pairs at metaphase plate(individual chromosomes in mitosis)
  3. Separation of homologs(sister chromatids separate in mitosis)
87
Q

What are 3 mechanisms that contribute to the genetic variation arising from sexual reproduction?

A
  1. Indepedent assortment of chromosomes: In metaphase one, homologs align themselves on the metaphase plate and which chromosome faces which pole is random(50% chance of paternal/fraternal)(2^n)
  2. Crossing over: Crossing over produces chromosomes that carry genes derived from 2 parents.
  3. Random fertilization: fusion of male and female gametes gives even more combination of genetic variation
88
Q

When do chromosomes become visible in mitosis?

A

Prophase

AP Biology Mr. Maiorana (16 decks)

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