chapter 8: regionalism Flashcards
Definitions: What is regionalism?
-A group of countries in a given geographic region that share common features, aims and incentives, or goals.
-Different regional blocs can differ quite significantly.
-States are unified by common goals, incentives, interests, and aims.
Definitions: What is intergovernmentalism? Give an example.
Definitions: What is intergovernmentalism? Give an example.
Definitions: What is supranationalism? Give an example.
-Organisation makes decisions, and imposes the on member states.
-The EU uses this. For exmple, only the European Commission can propose new laws. Agreements are made if at least 55% of members, representing at least 65% of the population, agree.
-This form of regionalism has been criticised as states lose too much power/sovereignty, leading to a democratic deficit.
Definitions: What is federalism?
-Where a centralised federal body exercises power, acting on behalf of a regional bloc.
-This system emphasises supranationalism, and deeper economic/political integration.
EU: When was the ECSC established, and by whom? When did it become the European Union? How has it promoted peace?
-Introduced in 1951, under the Treaty of Paris.
-It united France, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in the European Coal & Steel Committee.
-Under the 1992 Maastricht Treaty it became the European Union, which aimed to promote poeace & security, as well as economic interdependence.
-Has completely altered the relationshipbetween France & Germany, to the extent that war between the two former enemies is now unthinkable.
-Has had a legacy of promoting liberal values of democracy, even winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012.
EU: How has it promoted an Economic Union? What are the four freedoms of the Single Market? What are some challenges of the euro?
-Euro was created under the 1999 Treaty of Amsterdam, and introduced in 2002.
-Four Freedoms: People (under Schengen Agreement), Goods, Capital, and Services.
-New EU institutions, like the ECB, have been made, to set monetary policy in the Eurozone.
-They have also had to ensure that all Eurozone members tax & spend responsibly. They set non-binding guidelines for states to follow, which came under severe pressure during the 2008 financial crisis.
-In 2012, the European Fiscal Compact was signes as a legal intergovernmental treaty, requiring states to keep their national budgets in balance or in surplus.
EU: Why was the political/social union created? Describe some of the EU’s social policy.
-Creates a forum for member states to work together to agree to laws, & tackle member state’s challenges.
-European social fund gives money to social projects (aiming to reduce unemployment, for example). 10% of the EU’s budget is spent on this fund.
-Labour laws harmonise social policy on diverse matters, like working hours, and unemployment rights.
-EU directives cover a wide range of matters, ranging from social policy to trade/environment. Has even included the bendy banana law.
-The LEAVE campaign argued that the EU had introduced too many directives.
EU: How/Why is there a judicial & policing union?
-Allows coordination of laws & enforcement on matters of international interest, ie terrorism & organised crime.
-European Arrest Warrants allow for the police force in one member state to issue an arrest warrant for police in any other member state.
-This removes the need for states to negotiate extradition of a suspect back to their home state.
EU: How has the EU had a role in poverty? How has it been criticised?
-They have encouraged development outside borders, and is a leading donor of official Development Assistance, providing £75.2bn of aid in 2019.
-CAP makes it harder for farmers in developing states outside the EU to sell produce in the EU.
-EU farmers are also enabled to keep prices lower due to subsidies, making them more competitive in the developing world.
-CAP covers about half of the EU’s budget, costing €54bn in 2020.
EU: How has the EU advocated & helped human rights? Why have they been criticised?
-The ECHR was created in 1950 (before the ECSC), and aimed to prevent a repeat of the events of WW2. The ECHR has wider membership than the EU, as it is comprised of those in the Council of Europe.
-EU has its own charter of fundamental human rights, which sets out the specific rights that should be in place for all European citizens.
-Has been criticised as it lacks the means to intervene with human rights abuses, as they do not have a standing army. Often, NATO lead intervention in place of the EU.
EU: What did the EU establish in 1992?
-The European Commission established the Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations.
-This provides humanitarian aid, money, and emergency aid workers, and also responds to natural disasters.
-It also works closely with NGOs, and has a strong presence in Syria.
EU: Why has the EU been successful with their environmental policies? Give some examples of measures taken within the single market.
-Policies have been implemented due to the EU’s small size & the fact that most member states have similar economic development.
-The single market has meant that they are able to implement trade laws that protect the environment.
-EU aimed to achieve 20% cut in greenhouse emissions, find 20% energy from renewables and see a 20% improvement in energy efficency in 2020.
-Directives also require that public & private sector organisation carry out an environmental impact assessment before any new building or infrastructure projects.
EU: What else has the EU committed to in terms of the environment? How has the EU been relevant in environmentalism on an international scale?
-As part of the European Green Deal, they are committed to reach carbon neutrality by 2050, with set target to reduce greenhouse emissions by at least 55% of the 1990 levels by 2030.
-EU has observer status in the UN, and has a role in the G20 to promote environmental causes on the international stage.
-They have been integral to the development of various international agreements, like the 2009 Copenhagen Agreement, as well as taking a lead in Paris talks.
EU: How does the EU Covid Recovery Fund demonstrate the impacts of Brexit?
-As part of the 2021 budget, a Covid Recovery Fund was created. If the UK had still been in the EU, they would’ve been the second largest contributor to this fund.
-Though, the UK likely would’ve prevented the fund from going through.
-The recovery fund also prioritises green & digital projects, in line with targets for net zero.
-The recovery fund intended to renew confidence in capabilites after a poor early response, and patchy vaccine roll-out.
Types: What are some reasons for economic regionalism?
-When states share economic aims, they have greater incentive to cooperate.
-They can make mutually beneficial trade agreements, enabling them to maximise their own economies.
-States can use regional protectionist policies to pursue domestic trade (ie the EU is protectionist over agricultural industry, through CAP).
-Regionalism can also enable greater trade outside of the region. When the UK left the EU, Obama states that they would be “at the back of the queue” for negotiating a trade deal with the US.
Types: Give some examples of economic regionalism?
-NAFTA (now the USMCA) is an agreement between Canada, Mexico, and the US to enable states to trade freely.
-TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership) was agreed in 2016, but Trump withdrew in 2017.
-African Free Trade Area, AfCFTA, was founded in 2018, and includes 54/55 African countries.
-EU is a key example of economic regionalism, uniting states under a single market with a single currency.
Types: What are some reasons for political regionalism?
-Allows states to focus on tacking collective action on problems faced by multiple states in a region.
-Often built on shared cultural values.
-They might pool sovereignty to be stronger as a collective, which can increase state’s power within international organisation & forums.
-Enables the widening and deeping of regional relations.
Types: Give some examples of political regionalism.
-Arab League, founded in 1945, with 22 members across the Middle East & North Africa.
-Alliance of Small Island States (ASIS) was formed in 1990, but has no formal constitution. This was created to give a unified voice to small island states, like the Maldives & Nauru.
-ASEAN, founded in 1967.
-AU, 2002.
-EU, 1993.
Types: What are some reasons for security regionalism?
-States make alliances to strengthen their regional borders.
-This involves militaristic alliances/agreements that, if an outsider attacks a member state, all regional members will attack.
-Alliances of states are often centred on a common threat.
-They are sometimes centred on the movement of people, as they consider movement in a regional area to be safe, but maintain a common policy to restrict immigration from further afield or to prevent illegal asylum seekers.
Types: What are some examples of security regionalism?
-EU has gained influence over security policy through its Common Foreign and Security Policy.
-Lisbon Treaty, 2007, agreed for more powers for the EU to project its own unified foreign & security policy through the appointment of a High Representative of the Union for foreign Affairs & Security Policy and the President of the European Council.
-NATO, though, remains the most influential security organisation for European states, and the majority of EU members are also NATO members.
Types: What was Operation IRNI?
-Operation IRNI (Greek for peace) was launched in 2020.
-It is run by the European Union Naval Force under a new Common Security & Defence Policy, and aims to enforce the UN arms embargo to Libya following the Civil War.
-Using aerial, satellite, and maritime resources, IRINI is able to inspect vessels off the coast of Libya, that may be carrying arms.
-This replaced Operation Sophia, a previous military organisation introduced in 2015
Globalisation: Does regionalism help globalisation?
-Regional blocs enhance globalisation by, essentially, compartmentalising the globe. This has been termed the ‘global village’ argument.
-Regional blocs organise states into those that have similar goals, making the process of global governance more efficent.
-Regionalism is compatible with globalisation, and involves similar processes of cooperation.
-Outwardly looking regional blocs want to make the most of global networks and are simply acting as a larger unit than a nation-state.
Globalisation: How does regionalism hinder globalisation?
-Inwardly looing regional blocs display ‘regional egoism’, in that they are only really interested in the concerns of their own region, and become isolationist.
-Regional blocs may cut off economically through the implementation of protectionist policies.
-Regionalism can lead to further divides as the world is split into segments, hindering the ideals of a global community.
-Regional blocs are all quite different in character, meaning they cannot effectively act together in global relations.
Theories: How do liberals & realists differ in their views on the impact of regionalism on sovereignty?
-Liberals believe that cooperation is always good, whether on a regional or a global scale, as long as one does not impede the other.
-States are strengthened through cooperation, and regionalism is the only was to deal with a more interconnected world, as issue, increasingly, cannot be addressed on their own.
-Realists argue that regional/global governance is ultimately futile, as states will always continue to act in their own interests, and strong states will always be able to abuse the system.
Theories: What are the three main theories?
-Federalism.
-Functionalism.
-Neofunctionalism.
Theories: What does federalists argue? What do functionalists argue? What do neofunctionalists argue?
-Regionalism can and should be seen as a federal-style system with one central authority. There is a significant impact on state sovereignty, which is pooled.
-Functionalism dictates that regional blocs develop to fulfill specific functions, rather than as broader political identities.
-Neofunctionalists fall somewhere between these two theories. While there may be initial functions for the regional bloc, they may ‘spill over’ and expand into other areas.
Overall: How has regionalism benefitted peace?
-Democratic peace theory suggests that cooperation & interconnectedness, created through regionalism, makes conflict unthinkable.
-This is practically clear through the EU’s impact on Franco-Germany relations.
-African Union has it own peace & security council, enabling legitimate humanitarian intervention in Africa.
Overall: How has regionalism hindered peace?
-Not all regional orgs have a peacekeeping element (AL/ASEAN)
-The reduction in conflict is not soley due to regionalism. Instead, it could be argued, that economic cooperation is what has promoted peace & stability.
-Mary Kaldor argues that wars have simply taken a new form. States are no longer direct in their conflict, but it takes place in failed states.
-Regional blocs are often very inward looking, w/ isolationist agendas that lead to conflict.
Overall: How has regionalism reduced poverty ?
-Greater cooperation, with economic/political integration gives states the incentive to tackle poverty within their regional bloc.
-EU has attempted to resolve poverty in former Yugoslavian states, to align them with the rest of Europe.
-Regional blocs, like the AU, have a large voice in global institutions, regarding poverty.
-Greater economic integration can lead to improve poverty level, particularly with orgs like ASEAN.
-Initiatives like UN SDGs are only effective if regional alliances implement them.
-However, most poverty initiatives happen on a global scale, and through NGOs.
Overall: How has regionalism benefitted HRs?
-EU has had a large role in taking in asylum seekers, and has incorporated regulations over workers rights.
-Regionalism helps promote a more global scale of human rights protection, promoting a global appreciation for liberal values.
-However, there is less of an incentive for orgs to take human rights than poverty.
-Also, the AU has taken issue with human rights on a global scale, particularly the ICC over a Western bias. The AU has a poor record of arresting those indicted.
-Also, ASEAN/AL have not pressured member states like Myanmar that have perpetrated
Overall: How has regionalism benefitted the environment?
-EU has led the way in terms of environmental agreements at a regional level. It was also influential in the 2015 Paris Agreement.
-Also allows different needs of different regions to be considered when developing environmental policy.
-This prevents neo-imperialistic agendas to maintain international hierachy. Though, realists argue that this is unrealistic.
-Again, most environmental action has been taken on a global scale.
-While regional action is helpful, the problem of global warming called be solved by individual regions. It is a GLOBAL issue.
USMCA: What type of regionalism is this? What are its aims?
-Economic, as it is a free-trade agreement that replaced the 1994 NAFTA in 2020.
Aims to:
-Reduce trade barriers & tariffs in textilles, agriculture, and automobiles.
-Increase trade, integrating Mexico.
-Promote manufacturing in the region, increasing productivity.
USMCA: What are some successes?
-Reviewed every 6 years.
-Includes protectionist measures for American automobiles (0% tarrifs on cars where 75% was made in North America), with greater access to Canadian dairy market.
-Canadians to receive American goods online duty-free
-40-45% of all auto content to be made by workers earning at least $16 per hour.
-Also included more environmental regulations, and modernised old policies around digital trade.
USMCA: What are some failures?
-Expires after 16 years.
-Has has a limited impact on wage disparities in North America.
-While it has made some environmental provisions, but these have been fairly poor.
-It is probable that, under the Trump Administration, the interconnectedness between these nations will be weakened. Moves towards tarrifs for both Can & Mex have already been taken.
ASEAN: What type of regionalism is this?
-Primarily economic, with the clear aim to promote trade in the region.
-While it does have a political element, this has been somewhat limited, as it is primarily concerned with upholding state sovereignty.
-Does also have a security element, (the ASEAN Regional Forum aims to resolve conflict peacefully).
ASEAN: What does it do? What is membership like?
-Held its first East Asian Summit in 2005.
-ASEAN allows visa-free travel in the region and its security cooperation involves sharing intelligence.
-Has six major members, 10 total, including Indonesia, Philippines, and Thailand, but not China/Japan.
-Its main aim is to promote economic growth, peace & stability in the region.
ASEAN: What are some of their successes?
-South East Asian Nuclear Weapon-free Zone Treaty was signed in 1995.
-AFTA, Asian Free Trade Agreement, was signed in 1992, and any country that has joined since has had to sign this.
-In 2008, they ratified the landmark agreement, deepening economic integration, and turned ASEAN into legal identity.
-ASEAN has put pressure on Myanmar to adopt reforms.
ASEAN: What are some of their failures?
-Pressure put on Myanmar has arguably been ineffective.
-Has been criticised for being all talk, no action. It relies on consensus & non-interference.
-Bali Summit saw members back a general democratic principle that is somewhat incongruous with some member states.
-Has been, so far, unsuccessful with stopping conflict, in the South China Sea.
AL: What type of regionalism is it? What are its aims?
-Arab League is a political & security alliance, founded in 1945.
-Encourages cooperation between member states in order to promote their interests & affairs.
-It aims to protect member state’s sovereignty, and promote peace/stability.
AL: What are some of their successes?
-Since the Arab Spring, its had a greater sense of purpose, as it backed UN action against Gaddafi in Libya, supporting UNSC air strikes.
-Has also agreed over supporting Palestinians, but rarely beyond making decisions.
-Success has been at lower levels, eg school curriculums, protecting manuscripts, and creating a regional telecommunication union.
AL: What are some of their failures?
-There has been leadership rivalries, and divisions between traditional monarchies & revolutionary states.
-Decisions made by the league are only binding for the countries that voted for them, which has made some parts of the league redundant.
-Was unable to offer a response in the 1991 Gulf Wars, there were divisons over Iraq, and they failed to agree a wider response of recovery programme for Libya during the Arab Spring.
-Collective security policy has been weakened by internal conflicts in the region.
AU: What type of regionalism is it? How does it operate?
-African Union, established in 2002, as a form of political regionalism, uniting Africa to give the nations a bigger voice.
-Loosely modelled on the EU, and has a Pan-African Parliament, which debates continent-wide issue.
-Has a Peace & Security Council, and aims to expand to a human rights council, and a single currency.
AU: What are its aims?
-Was largely formed as backlash against colonial & neo-colonial interference in Africa.
-Has developmental goal centred on economic growth, and peace/stability in the region.
-Aims to reduced poverty & increase growth as well as improve human rights.
-Hopes to empower Africa by acting as their own peacekeeper, instead of relying on external powers.
AU: What are some of their successes?
-African Union has got rid of the non-interference policy of the OAU, its predecessor, and set up the 2004 Peace & Security Council.
-The AU has a New Partnership for African Development, an anti-poverty initiative
-Its peacekeepers have increasingly taken over from the UN, particularly in Somalia/Darfur, though many of the missions are still funded by the UN.
AU: What are some of their failures?
-Morocco left after disagreements over Western Sahara joining.
-Failure to act over the Libyan Civil War, and failed to put pressure of Gaddafi.
-African Union threatened to pull out of the ICC in 2017, which could harm image.
-Has failed to control Ethiopian forces in 2020 internal conflict.
-Some of their more ambitious plans have been too financially ambitious for poorer countries to fund, meaning it has looked to China. China’s increasing presence in Africa has been a cause for concern.
Regional Blocs: What evidence is there that they challenge the EU?
-Regional Blocs are starting to move towards expanding thei remit. Many have evolved from purely economic to political/security.
-EU has started in a stronger position than other blocs, earlier than most. The AU was formed 50 years after the EU, and has had to overcome post-colonialism. This suggests that, as time presses on, the gaps will reduce.
-African Union has a wider scope (55 members) over its continent than the EU does over Europe.
-Globalisation has incentivsied other blocs to be more competitive.
Regional Blocs: What evidence is there that they don’t challenge the EU?
-EU has had a unique role in promoting cultural values, clearly advocating for democracy, peace, and security. Its influence has been so significant that it has completely eradicated the chance of war between nations like France & Germany.
-EU’s regionalism is a lot deeper, and more integrated than any other org.
-EU has greater structural power, as a G20 member & WTO member, than most blocs.
-EU has a balance of strong, but not super, powers, that allows them to pool sovereignty in the absence of a massive dominance.
EU: What are 4 treaties, key to the EU’s development?
-Treaty of Rome, 1957, which created the European Economic Committee. This had no real check on state sovereignty, but was an expansion of its scope.
-Treaty of Maastricht, 1993, was a massive development, & created the EU. It set up the four freedoms of movement, as well as key institutions.
-Treaty of Nice, 2003, simply made ammendments to, and reformed Maastricht.
-Treaty of Lisbon, 2009, modernised the EU, and created the President of the European Council + High Representative for Foreign Affairs.
EU: What arguments are there for the EU being federalist?
-When states transfer some sovereignty to a higher doy, they reduce the risk of state’s self-interest creating an anarchical system.
-France & Germany, under the EU, have become so integrated, over a century, that war between the two is now unthinkable.
-However, it is, perhaps, not fully integrated, as some states have not taken the Euro, ie Denmark.
-Also, it is not wholly federalist, as states can simply opt out of the organisation.
EU: What arguments are there for the EU being more functionalist?
-Blocs like the EU did not emerge to be federalist, but have evolved to serve specific functions.
-Originally, the EU was for coal & steel, but it has expanded to include security etc.
-It has used collective action where, and when it is needed.
-However, states have been reluctant to hand over power to functional bodies which, they argue, lack legitimacy.
-This model is arguably too simplistic & short-sighted, as the EU has always had bigger visions than functionalism.
EU: What arguments are there for the EU being more neo-functionalist?
-EU began by addressing some functionalist issues, but this has led to spillover in political areas.
-In terms of defence, when there was a functional need for the EU to expand, it did. This then morphs into a long-term strategic aim.
EU: How has the EU’s role/objective changed?
-Economically, the single market was established under the Single European Act in 1986. This was then developed under the Maastricht Treaty.
-Security element developed after the Treaty of Lisbon. In 2009, the External Action Service was createdm implementing European security & defence policy, known as Common Security & Defence Policy).
-Since the early 2000s, it has undertaken greater humanitarian work w/ operations in Europe, Africa, and Asia, using the Euopean Union Force & Naval Force.
-Recently, has created Inteligence Services & Armed Police Fores to combat terrorism. This has led to events like, at the 2016 Berlin Christmas Market attack, where the perpetrator was arrested in Italy.
EU: Outline the phases of enlargement. Give an example of a state that currently wants to join.
-Inner Six (1951). Bel, Fr, Ned, Ital, Lux.
-First Enlargement (1970s). Den, Uk, Ire.
-Mediterranean Enlargement (1980s). Greec, Por, Sp.
-Northern Enlargement (1990s). Scandis + Aus.
-Post-Communist Enlargement (2000s). This has been highly controversial.
-Now has 27 members.
-Turkey applied to be a member in 1987, but has not yet been made a member, largely sue to the fact that it is semi-democratic (Erdogan has been PM since 2003 & Pres since 2014)
EU: What is the EMU?
-Introduced under the Maasricht Treaty, and Lisbon made the EMU compulsory for new states joining.
-This went beyond the previous exchange rate mechanism, establishing a single currency.
-The ERM reduced variability in exchange rates & aimed to improve European economic stability.
-Stability & Growth Pact in 1996 was designed to ensure that EMU members had strict budgetary discipline, to maintain stability.
EU: What are some economic benefits of the EMU?
-Removes obstacles to trade. This means that traders & travellers are free from constraints of currency conversions.
-The SGP ensures economic stability & low inflation.
-The EMU is less vulnerable to world currency markets, allowing them to have greater global influence.
-The SGP gives EMU member states the ability to employ measures to boost weakened economies.
EU: What are some political benefits of the EMU?
-There is greater transparency over prices, which benefits traders.
-Before the EMU, the German Federal Bank controlled monetary policy. Many didn’t like this.
-Euro has been a step towards a federal political union, and has helped foster a cosmopolitan identity.
-Within the World Bank & IMF, thue EU has been able to act as a counter-balance to the US.
EU: What does the European Commission do? Is it Supranational, or Intergovernmental?
-Executive of the European Union. All states choose a comissioner, and the Commission proposes legislaton to the Parliament/Council of Ministers.
-Comissioners are intended to represent interests of the EU, not national interests.
-It president is elected by the European Council.
-Supranational, as it imposes legislation.
EU: What does the European Council of Ministers do? Is it Supranational, or Intergovernmental?
-Shares a legislative role with the European Parliament. It decides whether or not to adopt proposals made by the commission.
-Each member state sends the appropriate Minister (ie if an agricultural matter is being discussed, they send the agriculture minister).
-Mix of both. While it is intergovernmental through the ministers, it uses qualified majority voting, making it somewhat supranational.
EU: What does the European Parliament do? Is it Supranational, or Intergovernmental?
-Only directly elected body, sharing equal legislative power with the Council of Ministers.
-Scrutinises the work of EU insititutions, and its consent is required for budgets to be passed.
-This is supranational.
EU: What does the European Council do? Is it Supranational, or Intergovernmental?
-Meets 4x a year, and represents all EU heads of government.
-They determine the strategic objectives of the EU, and it requires unanimous decisions.
-Intergovernmental, as decisions must be unanimous + it is a mix of all governments, acting in their own interests.
EU: What does the ECJ/ECB do? Is it Supranational, or Intergovernmental?
-European Court of Justice is the judicial arm of the EU, and each member state sends a judge. ECJ can overrule domestic law, making it supranational.
-European Central Bank is based in Frankfurt, and controls monetary policy of the 19 Eurozone member states. Sets Eurozone interest rates. It imposes these, making it supranational.
EU: How has the EU faced political obstacles in becoming a global actor? Structural? Economic? Military?
-Pol: Has been challenged by events like Brexit, which test their authority. Is seen as having a democratic deficit, as EU citizens are unable to vote over supranational elements.
-Stru: Lack of central authority or clear figurehead. EU has diverse interests that have led to difficulty in being a united power. UK’s departure has damaged their ability to act as a US counter-balance.
-Mil: Lack military power, relying on NATO for defence (which arguably makes them a NATO pawn). CSP has been undermined by counter-terrorism.
-Econ: Eurozone, during 2008, had to be bailed out by IMF. Newer members tend to have weaker economies. Has had disputes over things like CAP.
