chapter 7: power Flashcards
Power: Detail vaccine diplomacy.
-While the West, during covid, focused on providing their own citizens with vaccines, some powers used this as an opportunity to increase international influence.
-Serbia had the fasted vaccination rate in continental Europe, having acquired them from Russia & China. They then became a hub for neighbouring countries, using it as an opportunity to increase geopolitical standing.
-China publicised their vaccine campaign, even incorporating it into the Chinese Belt & Road Initiative. They used middle-eastern and African summits to offer vaccines and investment.
-This is essentially a key example of states using soft power to increase influence.
Power: What are some different types of power?
-Soft: Persuasion. States that persuade others to emulate their views, by making their own style of culture/politics attractive.
-Smart: A combination of the 2, used in the Obama Administration.
-Hard: Coercion. Power that can be used to compel individuals/states to another’s will, with no other option. This normally comes through physical (military/economic sanctions).
Power: What affects the choice of power you use?
-Situation.
-Capability.
-Opportunity.
Power: How can we measure the power of a state?
-Economic Power
-Military Power
-Cultural Power
-Diplomatic Power
-Population Power
-Structural Power
-Regional Power
-Resource & Development Power
-Natural Resource Power
Power: Give some stats about each of the BRICS, showing that they are emerging.
-B: 12th largest GDP in 2020, and 15th largest military expenditure. They have rich natural resources, like gold, iron, uranium, and petroleum.
-R: 11th largest GDP (2020), and 4th largest military expenditure. Has very strong oil, gas, and coal resources, making them an energy superpower.
-I: 2nd largest population, 6th largest GDP, and 3rd largest military expenditure, in 2020. They also have a supply of nuclear weapons.
-C: 2nd largest GDP, largest population, and 2nd largest military expenditure, in 2020. Has he third largest proportion of natural resources, behind US & Russia.
-S: Had nuclear weapons, but dismantled them after signing the NPT. South Africa has many natural resources, like diamonds, gold, and silver.
Balance: Outline how the balance of power has changed since 1945.
-Pre-WW2, the world was Multi-polar (which arguably contributed to the break out of war).
-1945-1989: Bipolar, Cold War.
-1989- Early 2000s: Unipolarity, US hegemon.
-2000s-Present: Arguably becoming more multipolar (US, China, Russia etc).
Balance: What is a Great Power? A Super Power? An Emerging Power?
-Great: Significant military outreach, involvement in IGOs, and strong economies.
-Super: Essentially the same as great, but more advanced through technology. They are often the centre of an ideology.
-Emerging: A state that has not met all the criteria of a great power, but still has a high level of regional influence.
Balance: In what ways was the Cold War NOT an era of peace?
Not
-Bipolarity arguable destabilises global scene, as both powers build up defence in response to the other. There is therefore massive suspicion and threat, meaning there is no lasting peace. Demonstrated by US paranoia about missile gap, which led to the Cuban Missile Crisis.
-1983, USSR shot down a South Korean Airliner, which could’ve provoked a military response from US.
-Also, Cold War was a period of proxy wars (Vietnam, 1963-75) - can it be a period of peace if this is simultaneously happening?
Balance: In what ways was the Cold War an era of peace?
Peaceful
-The 2 evenly balanced powers meant that no side was capable of eliminating the other, and both sides appreciated the limits of what they could achieve.
-After Stalin’s death, 1953, the emergence of diplomatic relations between the two nations meant a greater extent of peace.
-Nixon & Brezhnev agreed to a Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty in 1972, which slowed the build up of arms.
Balance: Give some key events in the Cold War.
1962: USSR places nuclear missiles in Cuba, leading to Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy responds with a ‘quarantine’ of Cuba. This is the most unstable period of the Cold War, and Vietnam breaks out the following year.
-1975: Ford & Brezhnev agree to the Helsinki Accords, which guarantees the borders of Europe. This demonstrated that Mutually Assured Destruction can increase stability.
-1980: Election of Reagan. His first administration massively increased Cold War tensions, and cruise missiles are placed in Western Europe.
-1986: Reagan & Gorbachev, Reykjavik Summit.
Balance: What happened with the fall of the Soviet Union?
-Gorbachev was a more radical leader, and argued for significant reform, withdrawing troops, negotiating with the US, and pursuing policy of Glasnost & Perestokia.
-However, Gorbachev’s reform was not quick enough for the appetite of the USSR, and as momentum gathered, more power was given to the constituent parts of the USSR.
-Russia, led by Boris Yeltsin was the largest of the parts.
-Then, in 1991, when communist hardliners tried to overthrow Gorbachev, Yeltsin defeated this coup, but then declared Russia independent.
-This led to the collapse of the USSR, which was formally dissolved on 26th December 1991.
-This led to the creation of 15 new countries, with massive political & economic problems, with divided national identities.
Balance: Discuss the example of Georgia, as a post-USSR state.
-Georgia emerged after the fall of the USSR, but tensions with Russia remained long term.
-Georgia went through a period of sharp economic decline.
-They have also expressed desire to be a member of the EU and NATO, increasing tension with Russia.
-This led to the 2003 Rose Revolution, which marked the end of pro-Russian leadership. This clearly demonstrated the pro-Western feeling.
-Also, there has been divisions between national identities. In 1993, Abkhazia declared itself an independent state, and in 2008, South Ossetia did too. Both regions now look towards Russia for protection.
-Russia joined the WTO in 2012, despite long-standing opposition from Georgia.
Balance: What is the global hegemonic theory? What does Fukuyama argue?
-The presence of the global hegemon, that is percieved by most other global players as benign, can act as a global police, which encourages peace and stability.
-Since the fall of the USSR, the USA has arguably become the global hegemon.
-In, The End of History, Fukuyama argues that American ideals of free-market liberal democracy have triumphed, and the popularity of the US’ economic, politcial and cultural identity have secured the US as a ‘benign leader’.
Balance: What does Kenneth Waltz argue? How are we in a period of power transition now?
-Unipolarity can be highly unstable, as it can encourage dangerous resentment. States want to protect themselves.
-It is particularly dangerous when the hegemon is in decline of power, and can make international relations extremely volatile.
-This has clear historical precendent, particularly in the start of WW1, where the growth of Germany began to challenge the UK’s power.
-The US military/economic weakness, particularly post- 2003/8. The US have also, as a superpower, been somewhat resented. While China has accepted US hegemony, their aggression in South China Sea suggests that its weakening (this is also shown by Russia in Ukraine/Crimea)
Balance: What does Noam Chomsky argue? Give an example of this.
-Lack of constraints on the one power can encourage them to go against international convention.
-This can create malign hegemony, where one state is so powerful that it doesn’t feel like it has to listen to others, and they become a ‘rogue superpower’.
-This was seen through the US’ action in Iraq in 2003, where they intervened without the approval of the UNSC.
Balance: Give some evidence that US is still economically and culturally dominant. Give some that they aren’t.
FOR
-Still the “pre-eminent power.” Their economy is still the largest in the world, and their GDP in 2020 was $20.8tr.
-US$ remains the international currency, and it still has huge structural power in IGOs.
-Americanisation of culture is still huge, and they still wield soft-power through this (particularly through film).
AGAINST
-Economic dominance is challenged by emerging powers, and China is projected to overtake it as largest economy.
-2015, AIIB was established to rival the World Bank.
-US elections have shown deep political divisions in the country, whereas states like Russia are wholeheartedly behind their leaders.
-Culturally, Hollywood has been challenged by Bolly/Nollywood, and the most popular sports teams in the world are ManU & Real Madrid.
Balance: Give some evidence that the US is still dominant in military & cyber. Give some evidence that they aren’t.
FOR
-Biden agreed to the New Atlantic Charter in 2021, which suggests that they are rising in influence.
-US has the world’s largest military budget. In 2020, the annual defence spending was $778m.
-US has 800 military bases, in more than 70 countries.
AGAINST
-China has heavily invested in long-range bonbers, nuclear subs, and medium range missiles. Obama focused on the pacific, not atlantic.
-US embarrassment in Afghanistan & Arab Spring, enabling powers like Turkey & Russia.
-Cyber attacks could leave the US weakened.
-In 2016, Russia announced that it had constructed the world’s most lethal nuclear weapon: the RS-28 Sarmat.
Balance: Detail the consequences of the Pivot to Asia, and what it reveals about the balance of power.
-Obama had a greater focus on Asia than the Middle East, favouring looking at the South China Sea than Arab Spring.
-Arguably, this led to USA’s surveillance of the South China Sea.
-As a result, this put greater emphasis on European leaders to deal with Middle Eastern issues.
-US’ decision not to act enabled Russia to intervene in the Assad & later annexation of Crimea shows Russia no longer viewed them as a threat.
-Suggests that Obama viewed China as a greater threat, and arguably shows that the US has less of a stronghold.
Balance: What is the realist view of multipolarity? What is the liberal?
-Realists argue that multipolarity represeents the most unstable distribution of global power. This is because the system is more fluid than bipolarity/unipolarity. When there aren’t two powers keeping states in check, states are encouraged to take risks, making the global system unpredictable.
-Liberals are more optimistic, about the consequences of multipolarity for global peace & stability. They believe that, without a global hegemon, states are more likely to cooperate in multilateral IGOs.
-Therefore, the relative scrutiny of a multipolar world is dependent upon whether states are prepared to work through international agencies of government.
Balance: Is there multipolarity in today’s system?
YES
-New emerging powers, like the BRICS nations, are increasingly powerful on the global stage. China’s economy, in particular, threatens global hegemony.
-Russia has become increasingly confident, since its intervention in Crimea/Syria, leading to Ukrainian invasion.
-Globalisation, particularly cultural, is no longer limited to America. We are increasingly moving away from “Americanisation.”
NO
-US is still the leading power in terms of its economy, and its military. China’s military outreach is only regional compared to US.
-Russia lacks allies, and its military outreach is insignificant compared to US.
-Americanisation is still the major cultural movement
Regional: What is regional bipolarity? What did Mary Kaldor argue about failed states?
-Regionalism has meant that its more realistic for a state to vie for leadership in a region than globally.
-This has led to regional bipolarity, where 2 states contend for prominence within a given region, like Iran v Saudi, or India v Pakistan.
-She argued that failed states would lead to new kinds of war.
-This is because outside powers have to act to prevent these failed states becoming a magnet for violence and terrorism. It puts emphasis on outside states becoming peace-keeping powers, which leads to a more bipolar regional system.
Regional: How does regional bipolarity impact global stability?
-It worsens it. Bipolarity, particularly in a regional scene, has led to various proxy wars, which has only destabilised the regional situation.
-This has also invited involvement from the international community, like the US in Iraq and has only increased the quantity of failed.
-Particularly with Iran & Saudi, it has led to greater conflict & wars (like the of Iraq) it has also led to involvement of global superpowers, again weakening global stability.
-Regional bipolarity has not served its purpose of keeping other states in check, as well as balancing each other’s power.
Regional: Outline some of the tensions between Iran & Saudi Arabia.
-Religious divisions: Shia in Iran, and Sunni in Saudi. However, this difference is often overplayed by Western media.
-Natural resources: Both states have massive oil reserves. They therefore both have economic interests, as they occupy the same market, heightening chances of warfare.
-Involvement of other powers: Saudi has strong ties to the US, while Iran has less of a connection. This US allyship has often exacerbated conflict.
Regional: Give some key recent events regarding Iran & Saudi?
-2017: Missile Strikes in Riyadh. Saudi intercepted a missile that, it believed, had been supplied by Iran.
-2018: US pulls out of Iran nuclear deal. May 2018, Trump withdrew the United States from the Iran nuclear deal.
-2019: Attacks on Saudi targets. Saudi blamed Iran for a series of attacks, including one at the heart of Saudi’s oil industry.
-2020: Qassem Soleimani, and Iranian military commander, killed in US drone strike. Saudi media celebrated the attack.
-2021-onwards: Talks have been held between the states since their first official meeting in April 2021. In 2023, Riyadh and Tehran annouced their decision to re-establish ties.
Regional: Outline some of the tensions between India & Pakistan.
-Religion: The 1857 partition split them into Hindu India, and Muslim Pakistan, though each has a minority population of the other group. This has led to mass migration & the deaths of 100,000s in communal violence.
-Land: Kashmir is a highly contested region, that India owns the majority of. This has led to the drawing of ceasefire lines in the region, and Clinton described it as one of the most dangerous places in the world.
-Nuclear weapons: India conducted their first nuclear weapons test in 1974, and Pakistan in 1998. Both seem prepared for warfare.
Regional: Detail some recent events between India & Pakistan.
-Feb 2007: Samjhauta Express. Blasts in two coaches killled 68 people, most of whom were Pakistani nationals.
-Nov 2008: 10 Pakistani men, associated with the terror group, Lashkar-e-Tayyiba, stormed various buildings in Mumbai, killing 164 people. The only gunman that survived was executed in 2012.
-Feb 2019: Pakistani terrorists carried out a suicide car bomb attack in Kashmir. India retaliated with air strikes across the Line of Control. In August, the Indian government revoked Article 307, which grants Kashmir autonomy. Trade was haulted in response.
-Present: Senior Pakistani Intelligence agencies believe India to have been involved in up to 20 killings since 2020. Relations are still very poor, but trade has continued (India exported $1.2bn to Pakistan, 2023-4) and the LoC still stands.
Regional: Detail some proxy wars, (Iraq, Yemen, Syria).
-Iraq. The 1980s, Iran-Iraq War increased Saudi-Iran tensions. When Iran began to win, Saudi financially backed Iraq. This continued until the 1988 UN Ceasefire. Then, in 2003, the US, not supported by Saudi, got involved, to overthrow Saddam Hussein. This left Iraq as a failed state, and means that both states now support rebel groups in Iraq.
-Yemen. Civil War following the Arab Spring has left Yemen as a failed state. Iran has backed the Houthi movement, angering Saudi, who began air strikes on these groups, hoping to uphold Hadi’s government. This was also backed by Western powers. Al-Qaeda and IS have also been regaining territories in Yemen.
-Syria. Syrian Civil War, in the wake of the Arab Spring, was soon became a proxy war. Iran backed the Assad regime, and Saudi backed rebel groups.
Democracy: Give an example Semi-democratic, a non-democratic, a failed, and a rogue state.
-Semi-Dem: Superficial features of a democracy, but not fully functioning, ie South Africa.
-Non-Dem: Lack of democratic elements to government. Autocratic states are the same, ie North Korea.
-Failed: Gov has failed and there is no central power -> power is instead contested by other groups, ie Afghanistan.
-Rogue: A state whose foreign policy is now threateninf other states, ie Russia.
Democracy: Give some key events in the DRC.
-In 1960, Gained independence from Belgium. A year later, PM Patrice Lumumba was assassinated, and Mobutu Sese Seko seized power.
-1997: Mobutu was overthrown in the start of the First Congo War from 1998-2003.
-Second Congo War from 1998 to 2003, resulting in the deaths of 5.4m people. War ended under Joseph Kaliba.
-2012: Eastern Congo has been the site of ongoing military conflict with the M23 rebel group.
-2018: General election, Kaliba was succeeded as president by Felix Tshisekedi.
-Dec 2023: Tshisekedi won a second term.
Democracy: Why is the DRC a failed state?
-DRC has $24tr worth of minerals, leading to continuous exploitation from the West, particularly Belgium.
-After they declared independence, Lumumba became leader, but the West viewed him as a threat, and he was murdered.
-President Mbotu came into power, enabled by the West, and a decade of war ensued. Mbotu was responsible for stealing 1/2 of the nation’s wealth.
-When the Kabila family came into power, 5 million died, and amid the tech boom an estimated $750m more was stolen by Kaliba.
-Now, 70% of the population in DRC live below the poverty line, and it has the highest rate of sexual violence in the world.
-Generally, the DRC has been victim to an exploitative ruling class, in the aftermath of colonisation, the has left is as a failed state.
Democracy: Why is NK considered a rogue state?
-Has a large arsenal of nuclear weapons, which threatens global stability.
-Has a long history of violence with South Korea.
-Tense relation with the US - as there has been no willingness to compromise on nuclear arms/inspections.
-NK frequently ignores international laws & it has a porr human rights record, particularly going against the UN Charter.
-The population of NK is deliberately isolated from the rest of the world (as seen during Olympics etc).
-There are 12,000 NK troops in Ukraine, aiding aggressive Russian policy, though both the Kremlin and NK denies this.
Democracy: Give some recent events regarding Syria & the fall of the Assad.
-May 2023, Syria was re-admitted to the Arab League, suggesting greater international engagement. This was opposed by UK, US, EU.
-Sep 2023, Assad invited to China, and the countried announced a strategic partnership, agreeing to help Syria’s economy recover.
-2024: Saudi + UAE appointed their first envoys to Syria since 2012, and Italy also established a diplomatic presence.
-Nov 2024: UN envoy says conflict was “on track to be the most violent since 2020.” By 26th, HTS, a group with its roots in Al-Qaeda, captured Aleppo and then launched an offensive on Damascus.
-Dec 2024: On 8th, Russian Foreign Ministry confirmed that Assad had resigned, and left the country, being granted asylum in Russia.
Democracy: Give some arguments that democracy is the best form of government.
-Democracy is good for political development, as it empowers the population, which generates stability.
-Democracy goes hand in hand with liberal values and, according to Fukuyama, it is the ideal form of government, that encourages multilateralism and cooperation.
-Democracy complements capitalism & free trade, meaning it is a significant factor in economic development.
-Democracies bring peace & stability to the international system.
Democracy: Give some arguments that democracy is not the best form of government.
-Democracy shouldn’t be seen as ‘one size fits all’. A benign dictator can benefit a relatively new/underdeveloped country through strong leadership.
-Democracy is unsustainable if implemented too early. A country first needs economic stability before they can implement a successful democracy.
-Many developing countries benefit from protectionist policies as they are a good way to stabilise economic growth.
-Western liberals often assume that democracies always provide the best form of goverment and that authoritarian governments impede development. However, China is a key example of how this is not always true.
Democracy: Where did the Arab Spring begin? Why? What facilitated the spread of the Arab Spring?
-December 17th, 2010, in Tunisia. Mohamed Bouazizi, a working class vendor, had his stock confiscated, and after humiliation from police, he stood outside the local governor’s office, and lit himself on fire.
-This sparked the Tunisian revolution, and the beginning of the Arab Spring. On the 11th of January, 2011, the Tunisian government fell apart, and revolution spread into Algeria, Jordan, Oman, etc.
-Social media was key in spreading the revolutionary message, with videos etc being shared of the movement.
-These were soon coopted by terrorist groups, like ISIS, who replaced the toppled governments.
Democracy: What has been the impact of the Arab Spring on the Middle East?
-Has left many countries with either authoritarian leaders, or has simply left them as failed states.
-Iran and Saudi, are both authoritarian. Iran is theocratic, while Saudi has an absolute monarchy.
-Yemen, Syria, etc are failed. These were both left failed after long-winded civil wars.
-Iraq is semi-democratic, but is subject to attacks from Iran/terrorist organisations, who fear the impact of a strong Iraq.
-Essentially, since the Arab Spring, the Middle East has become increadibly fraught, with little stability/democracy.
Stability: To what extent is China a superpower? (World View, Military).
World View: Great Power.
-It makes very little attempt to push its ideology on a global scale, and even its
closest neighbours accept US’ ideology.
-However, it has positioned itself as a world leader on Climate Change, particularly as Trump withdraws.
Militarily: Great Power.
-While its defence budget is second only to the US ($178bn in 2019), and the String of Pearls initiative has started construction of military bases in many cities, it is still no where near rivalling the US.
-The US has 800 overseas military bases, while China opened its first in 2016.
Democracy: To what extent is China a superpower? (Economic, International Orgs).
Economically: Superpower.
-For the past 30 years, China’s annual growth rate has been between 8-10%, and they did not suffer in the 2008 crash to the same extent that Europe did.
-They are the largest trading partner in Africa, in 2019 trade worth $192bn. They even encroached on US’ dominance in South America, where, between 2000-2013, trade increased 22x.
-While there is still massive poverty in China, wealth disparity is also prevalent in the US.
IGOs: Great Power.
-Belt & Road Initiative, massive infrastructure investment in 70+ countries. They have also been a member of the WTO since 2001, and have set up/headed orgs like the AIIB.
-However, its military/diplomatic outreach does not match that of its economic, and they don’t wield as much influence as the US.
Democracy: Give some evidence that the rise of China threatens global stability.
FOR
-Expansion of military influence into South China Sea has threatened powers like Japan/SK/US.
-Alliance w/ NK has also increased tension. Their history of nucleararms puts them firmly at odds with Western powers, which reflects poorly on China.
-Trump pulling out of the Paris Climate Agreement, suggesting that international harmony is neither long-term nor secure.
-Henry Kissinger argued that treating China as a threat to peace is a “self-fulfilling prophecy.”
AGAINST
-China & US depend on each other for trade & investment, so its not in the economic interests of the region for the to break into outright war -> “Chimerica.”
-Evidence of them working closely together is not unheard of. Like the joint Climate change deal in 2014, which paved the way for PCC.
Stability: How has the changing balance of world power affected conflict? What is the realist argument, what is the liberal, and why is neither convincing?
-Realist: Power transitions are highly unstable, as aspiring powers, who all seek great power and security, are inclined to take great risks. They believe that states begin to challenge to hegemon’s attempts to retain global standing.
-Liberal: Multipolar world can encourage states to work together, enabling cooperation through the forums of global governance. In a balanced world, no one power should be able to unilaterally impose its will on others.
-Each side is based off of a different interpretation of what motivates states. However, states are neither wholly one nor the other. The only thing that is certain is that failed/rogue states are unlikely to disappear.
Stability: Give some evidence that the changing balance of world power has helped reduce global poverty.
-Share of the developing world, living off of less than $1.25 a day fell from 30% in 2000 to 10% in 2014.
-In 2015, the international poverty line was raised to $1.90, with only 9.4% of pop. below it.
-2020, 2 of the top 10 largest economies were in the developing world (China & India).
-In Africa, states like Ethiopia, & Cote d’Ivorie have taken the opportunities provided by global trade.Ethiopia exports textiles and coffee, while CI is the world’s largest exporter of cocoa beans.
-In 2019, China’s Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Africa was >$100bn, contributing to 20% of Africa’s economic growth.
Stability: Give some evidence that the changing balance of world power has NOT reduced global poverty.
-The effects of Covid are still being felt, leading to the first rise in absolutely poverty in 20 years, and an estimated 150m people being pushed into extreme poverty, in 2021.
-While those in emerging economies, particularly the East Asian Tigers, have been lifted out of poverty, the “Bottom Billion,” termed by Paul Collier, have felt the impact of globalisation far less. Those located in Sub-Saharan Africa have had cheap labour forced upon them, trapping them in a form of neo-colonialism.
-Free markets can, and have, increased inequality. Trump’s election, in 2016, was largely due to him winning the ‘rust belt’ states (Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin), where manufacturing jobs had been lost to the developing world.
Stability: Give some evidence that the changing balance of world power has worsened the environmental situation.
-Economic growth has meant industrialisation, which leads to increased pollution, and deforestation.
-Focus on reducing poverty has led to a neglect of the environment, and economic growth has been prioritised over sustainable development.
-The developing world has been critiqued for using coal, and other cheap fuels. Though, this is quite hypocritical, as the developed world used this for decades to become wealthy.
-The 2009 Copenhagen Conference was unsuccessful due to the difficulty of achieving a consensus between developed and developing worlds, on how to limit carbon emissions.
-Population growth has been arguably unsustainable, and Thomas Malthus argeued that we do not have the available resources to continue this exponential growth. This will lead to damine, disease, and civil war.
-The second Trump Administration is also likely to undermine climate consensus, as seen through his withdrawal from Paris Climate Accord.
Stability: Give some evidence that the changing balance of world power has improved the environmental situtation.
-Ester Boserup disputs Malthus’ view, and argues that population growth forces us to find better solutions. There will therefore be development of new technologies to help us manage resources.
-Paris Climate Change Conference succeded in getting almost all 200 states to agree to limit temperature rises to 1.5°C.
-Trump’s election, in 2016, led to some World leaders ‘flipping’ their view on climate change. China cancelled plans for 104 new coal plants, expressing their regret over US not following the Paris Agreement.
-Biden did rejoin the Paris Accord, and cancelled the Keystone XL pipeline initiativ, which aimed to extend an existing oil pipeline from Alberta to Nebraska.
Stability: How has the changing balance of power impacted attitudes towards human rights protection?
-Following WW2, there was a commitment to protecting rights. The establishment of the UDHR in 1948, and the Genocide Convention, created a clear interntional precedent of human rights violations.
-Bipolar period, there was less of a committment, and Cold War left HRs gridlocked.
-The commitment to HRs didn’t really start up until after the collapse of the USSR, though. During the 90s, Unipolarity allowed a ‘New World Order’, leading to intervention in Serbia, and dedication to peace talks in Ireland.
-Though, in this Unipolar period, there were still failure, particularly over the Rwandan genocide, 1994 (leads to the deaths of 800,000 Tutsis) and the 1993 Somalia (where troops were withdrawn after the Battle of Mogadishu).
-Following 2003, as world has become more Multipolar, states have been less committed. Covid, Identity Politics (ie Brexit/Farage/Le Pen), and the War on Terror has left HRs sidelined.
