chapter 3: political global governance Flashcards
what is global governance?
increasingly states have recognised the need for some form of gloval governance. challamges such as the global fincnacial crises, international terrorism, climate hcange, world poverty, global pandemics, global human rights abuses and violent conflicts can only be resolved by states working together.
why is global governance difficult?
- states are principle actors: meaning they can make or break global governance incitiatives. nothing is agreed globally unless states agree to take action
- international law is largely unenforceable: this is because it is often optional and requires states to actively sign up but states can also change thier minds and withdrew
- lack of international enforcement: even if states have signed up to international law, there are fre means of international enforcement
what are rogue states, failed states and powerful states?
- rogue states: these states, particualrly those with illegitimate governments like North Korea have no desire to be a part of global governance
- failed states: these states are not fully in control of their internal governments meaning they are less effective at global governance, mainly because they do not over hold full authority over their populations due to groups such as Boko Haram in Nigeria and ISIL in Iraq
- powerful states: these states can pick and choose which global agreements they are part of and ignore international preessure seen through Russia in Ukraine
what are the three approaches to global governance?
- intergovernmental organisations: these organisations such as the UN provide a permanent and formal rule based framework in which states can negotiate and form agreements
- international treaties: these are a means of creating international law more flexibly on specific issues either within or independent of IGOs
- ad hoc meetings: states can meet in informal meetings and undertake negotiations and agreements on a more ad hoc basis
advantages of IGOs, treaties and ad hoc meetings?
- IGOs:
a permanent forum for debate and negotiation where long term projects can be persued like the sustainable development goals
an authoritive and legitimate actor in global politics based on rules and law e.g UN charter
good for smaller countries if all countries have an equal voice e.g UNGA - treaties:
allows like minded states to create binding international law on any issues in which they have common interest
states can be more flexible if outside IGOs rather than following majority - ad hoc meetings
allows states to respond veery quickly to crises and form agendas e.g the London Group of Twenty summit in 2009 quickly developed an agenda designed to tackle the global crash
disadvantages of IGOs, treaties and ad hoc meetings?
- IGOs:
can become gridlocked esp. if powerful states are given veto powers e.g UNSC
less meaningful for smaller countries if they have no clear powers
effectiveness is dependent on the collective determination of an IGOs member states, if this becomes weak the IGO will be e.g the declining defence spending of NATO countries - treaties:
states can choose not to sign and ratify treaties e.g key states that have withdrawn from NPT (nuclear prol… treaty)
even when states have signed treaties, this cooperation largely remains a choice and it can be difficult to force states to comply - ad hoc meetings:
sometimes seen as less legitimate or even illegal e.g us-led invasion of iraq
decisions or agreements are not binding in international law and are therefore even less enforceable
states are at liberty to make their own independent choices and protect their sovereignty
UN: When was it founded? What are its founding objectives?
-Founded in 1945, and tackles problems regarding global conflict, poverty, human rights, and climate change.
-Founding objectives were:
1) Maintain international peace and security, “take collective measures for the… removal of threats to peace.”
2) Maintain friendly relations among nations.
3) Promote & encourage respect for fundamental human rights.
4) Uphold respect for international law.
5) Promote social progress and better standards of life.
-Chapter VI of the UN Charter sets out powers to resolve disputes using peaceful means.
-Chapter VII sets out the UN’s powers to ersolve disputes using the military, Article 42, for example, allows military action, if peace talks have been unsuccessful.
what are the current challenges that the UN focuses on? and how are they doing it?
- climate change. the UN has taken more action to reduce harm to the environment through the UNFCCC and agreements such as Paris and Kyoto protocol
- human rights: through the UDHR and the human rights council to monitor individual states human rights
- limiting nuclear weapons: the treaty of non-proliferation 1968, the un allowed a forum for a treaty to be signed that states would not get more nukes. the UNGA has a dedicated disarmament commission
-peace and security: any UN peacekeeping mission must be approved by the UNSC such as humanitarian intervention in Somalia, Rwanda, Bosnia, but has become harder after war on terror - promoting sustainable development: the MDGs we’re a success and then the following SDGs in 2015
UN: What are some key UN organs? Give brief desc.
-UNSC: Executive committee in charge of peace & security.
-UNGA: Acts as UN’s parliament.
-ECOSOC: Responsivle for economic security & development.
-ICJ: Makes decisions on territorial disputes.
-Secretariat: UN’s ‘Civil Service.’
UN: How many members are there? Who was the most recent member? Is power balanced?
-There are 193 members, the most recent of which was South Sudan, who joined in 2011.
-Palestine & the Vatican have observer status, which is used when the sovereignty of a state is contested.
-The 5 permanent members technically have the most power.
UN: What is the role of the UN Secretary-General? How are they appointed? What are their powers?
-Acts as UN’s spokesperson, as well as setting the agenda.
-UNGA appoints them on the recommendation of the UNSC, and they then serve a 5-year term.
-By setting the agenda, they essentially control what issues the UN deals with, Kofi Annan, for example, led the Millenium Summit.
-Their powers are also dependent on the geo-political climate. During the Cold War, it was difficult due to the opposition of the USA & the USSR.
UN: How has the UN been successful in terms of Human Rights? How has it been less so?
-UN has provided a forum in which international human rights laws have been negotiated and agreed, including Covenants on Political and Civil Rights.
-Human Rights Council monitors compliance with HR laws.
-Established the ICC, which has been used to prosecute war crimes & human rights abuses.
-Idea of R2P was developed by Kofi Annan.
HOWEVER,
-War on Terror led to human rights abuses that UN couldn’t prevent. Led to unlawful imprisonment, and asset-freezing.
-Work of UN is largely through soft power.
UNSC: What powers does it have? What is the UNSC comprised of?
-Issue binding resources in international law, by which all members must abide.
-Economic sanctions and call upon other member states to adopt them.
-Authorise military action, ranging from humanitarian action to no fly zones.
-Decide whether new member states should be recognised by the UNGA.
-Made up of 5 permanent members, and 10 elected, non-permanent members.
UNSC: Why does the UNSC have a veto? Who has it? Who has used it the most, and why has the use of the veto changed?
-Makes the UNSC an effective & decisive body on international security measures. It also allows the most powerful states to protect their national interest, which prevents them leaving in order to pursue their own interests.
-USA, UK, Russia, China, and France have the veto.
-Russia has used it the most with 107, USA 79 times, and the UK 29 times.
-How frequentley vetoes are used is entirely dependent on the balance of power in the UNSC. During the Cold War, the veto was used most frequently, and as UK/France have become less powerful, they have used it less. they both have not vetoed since 1989
UNSC: How is the UNSC successful in terms of preventing conflict?
-UNSC has had successful resolutions, and has authorised peace keeping forces in at least 70 operations since 1948.
-The UN observer mission in Israel & Palestine has been in place since 1948. However, this has obviously been unsuccessful, and Resolution 242 (which called for Israel to leave occupied Palestinian territory) has been ignored.
-No permanent members have left, suggesting that they are using the UNSC as the main forum for peace negotiations.
-Has successfully set up peace talks, avoiding military action. This was seen in Syria in 2015 (though this had not amounted to peace by 2021).
-Large scale intervention in Ivory Coast in 2011 (sending 12,000 personnel) was very successful However, in Bosnia in 1995 the UN ‘safe haven’ of Srebrenica fell due to the actions of the UN.
UNSC: How is the UNSC successful in terms of protecting human rights?
-UNSC has authorised successful humanitarian intervention in Libya, Yugoslavia, and East Timor, enabling transitions to democracy etc.
-UNSC criticised the use of chemical weapons in Syria in 2013. However, Resolution 2118 was largely ignored, and Syria instead developed ‘Barrel Bomb’ chemical weapons. Assad regime led to deaths of 500,000.
-Has authorised sanctions against states violating human rights, like North Korea & Iran from 2005-2015, as well as non-state actors like al-Qaeda.
-However, has done little to stand in the way of the oppressive regime in Afghanistan, where women are increasingly denied basic rights. In 2018, it was reported that 3804 civillians had been killed.
-UNSC were unwilling to intervene in the Rwandan genocide in 1994, and between half a million and a million died.
UNSC: What are some limitations of the UNSC’s success?
-The veto means that there is an imbalance of power in the UN, and it means that the UNSC is ineffective in protecting the world against its own members. Russia’s annexation of Crimea, and later invasion of Russia could not have been prevented due to the veto.
-Many issues have not even been voted on, as it was certain that they would be vetoed (Iraq 2003 did not even attempt).
-Permanent 5 are arguably outdated, could be argued that states like India are of greater global importance.
-UN relies on NATO & African Union to carry out its military operations. The action in Libya in 2011, for example, was carried out by NATO.
UNGA: What are some key functions of the UNGA?
-Electing UNSC non-permanent members, and appoint members of ECOSOC.
-Appointing sec-gen based of UNSC recommendation.
-Considering & debating reports from ECOSOC & ICJ.
-Approve UN budget.
-Elect judges to the ICJ.
UNGA: How has it been successful? (In terms of membership & structure).
-Has 193 member states, with equal voice & equal vote, meaning that they represent (virtually) the whole of the world.
-Meet once a year, so meetings are regular. Also, everyone attends and everyone has an equal voice.
-In recent years, membership has become more diverse, meaning countries like the US have less of a stronghold.
-Committees are used to stream-line work, making the system more effective. They put forawrd as many as 60 proposals for resolutions a year.
-Has been able to make controversial decisions. The admittance of Palestine as an observer state in 2012, for example, enabled them to sign the Rome statute.
UNGA: How is it limited? (In terms of membership & structure).
-Resolutions are not binding, and have no actual influence over international law. They are more symbolic than anything.
-It has no actual voice in matters of international security.
-Only meets once a year (is that often enough to keep up with the political sphere?)
-Decisions in the past (when UN/NATO dominated) were practically pre-determined.
-Members of the Human Rights Council serve 3-year terms, and it is made up of 47 states, so not fully representative.
-Agenda can be too full and decision making is very slow, as reaching 2/3 majority can be very difficult.
-Subordinate to the UNSC in matters of peace & security.
UNGA: How has it had success in the environment, poverty, conflict, & HRs?
-En: Developed the MDGs & SDGs in 2000/2015. UN Environment Programme sponsored the Montreal Protocol. UNGA has provided a forum for discussion about climate change, and has led to Paris Treaty.
-P: Development goals have also worked towards reducing poverty. Economic & financial committee was salient in determining the impact covid had on the SDGs. WHO coordinated efforts the eradicate polio & leprosy. World Food Programme delibers >15bn emergency food rations a year.
-C: Have made decisions about R2P, legitimising military action in the global scene. DISC passed a resolutions for a nuclear weapon-free zone in the middle-east.
-HR: The UDHR was set up in 1948, enshrining human rights. R2P!! Condemned the use of chemical weapons. Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural committee put forward resolutions in 2020 condemning abuses in Syria, Myanmar, and Iran.
UNGA: What are some limitations in the environment, poverty, conflict, & HRs?
-En: It is ultimately down to the nation-state to comply & work towards the MDGs.
-P: “”
-C: Resolutions about chemical weapons were ineffective. DISC has been unsuccessful in stifling the use of nuclear weapons.
-HR: R2P has not been consistently followed. The HRC has been criticised for involving states responsible for human rights abuses, Human Rights Watch said it was “a jury that includes the murderers.”
ICJ: What are its functions?
-Principal judicial organ of the UN.
-Settles legal disputes between member states.
-Give advisory opinions on legal questions submitted by authorised agencies.
-Deals with territorial issues (NOT HRs!)
ICJ: How is it successful?
-ICJ makes important judgements with clear authority, regardless of the consent of states. It is therefore an important mediator.
-Many international treaties specify that the ICJ is the designated meand of resolving disputes in agreements that they set out.
-Made up of 15 judges, elected on 9-year terms. This ensures plurality of thought, with no clear bias, but also not threat of stagnation.
-72 states have signed a ‘unilateral declaration’, accepting the ICJ’s authority in any dispute that might arise.
-Has made rulings on many contentious issues. In 2004, it ruled that the security fences around the Palestinian West Bank, constructed by Israel, were illegal (though this was ignored).
ICJ: How is it unsuccessful?
-States effectively give their permission to be subject to the court’s decision, this is not automatic.
-Enforcement of rulings is dependent on the UNSC, but this is rare. The UNGA can only apply pressure, with non-binding resolutions.
-They are therefore easily ignored. The ICJ’s ruling about the Chagos Islands was ignored by the UK for 5 years.
-Court does not have automatic authority to hear cases. Both sides must agree on the matter.
ECOSOC: What are its functions?
-Act as a forum for debate.
-Agree specific policy that can be implemented by other UN agencies (like the WHO).
-Lead on international development goals set out in the MDGs & SDGs.
-Made up of 54 member states on 3-year terms.
ECOSOC: What are some successes? (In terms of structure).
-Provides an opportunity for smaller states to share responsibilty for social & economic policy.
-Greater efficency and focus than the UNGA.
-Has 14 subsidiary bodies, each with large funding.
-Has set clear policy, like the MDGs.
-UNDP has budget of $5bn.
ECOSOC: What are some failures? (In terms of structure).
-President sits for only a year, which means that forward planning is difficuly.
-Large number of agencies which report to ECOSOC means that there can be costly overlapping of responsibility and accountability.
-Its resolutions are not binding.
-Its role in human rights protection is simply that of monitoring, and they cannot change a state’s behaviour.
ECOSOC: What are some successes in terms of poverty & environment?
-Through the work of World Bank & IMF, developing countries have been given the opportunity to partake in a more globalised world.
-WHO has combatted polio & World Food Programme has provided rations.
-In 2017, there were 68.5mn displaced people in the world. the UNCHR has provided them with support and protection.
-ECOSOC has set up UNAIDS to respond to HIV crisis.
-Has helped ensure equal access to covid vaccines, convincing wealthier states to donate. It has also led public education campaigns to get people vaccinated.
-MDGs & SDGs!!!!!!
-Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is a UN body that helps inform member states and push them towards takin action.
ECOSOC: What are some failures in terms of poverty & environment?
-Developing countries lack influence in principal decision-makers, like World Bank, IMF, and WTO.
-Critics claim ECOSOC lacks decision making function, and is simply a global beaurecracy.
-In the first year of the pandemic, 168m children had had school closed for a full year.
-Nation states are themselves responsible for how ambitious their carbon cutting targets are. The Trump Administration quickly withdrew from the Paris Agreement.
-Development goals were massively put on hold by covid.
Treaties: How are they a successful form of global governance?
-Provided basis for IGOs. Treaty of Rome founded the European Community.
-Flexible means for action on any matter, from environment to health.
-Targeted & specific, unlike IGOs, which allows states to retain greater control.
-Formal international law, which increases the likelihood of being properly followed.
-ASEAN Free-Trade Agreement (1992), created a freer market in South-East Asia.
-Kyoto Protocol (1997) committed states to reduce emissions.
-Rome Statute created the ICC & has been ratified by 121 states.
Treaties: How are they an UNsuccessful form of global governance?
-Kyoto protocol has been somewhat ineffective.
-ICC & Rome statute has not been ratified in China, Russia, or the US.
-States can simply chose whether to sign up or not.
-NPT has had major states opt out of it, either not signing up or withdrawing.
Treaties: How far has the NPT been successful? When was it formed?
-Formed in 1970, and it is the world’s most widely signed arms control treaty, with 190 states.
-Successful in that no state (except NK) has successfully developed nuclear weapons since the mid 1980s, and South Africa even gave up its nuclear weapons in its entirety.
-However, there are some states that have not joined, and they likely never will. Also, NK withdrew in 2003 & 3 years later successfully developed nuclear weapons, so states can easily withdraw/opt out.
