chapter 1: Theories of global politics Flashcards
Define liberalism
a theory based on an optomistic interpretation of human beings’ capacity for co-operation, arguably nation states in global politics are linked and interdependent and best advanced through states working closely with one another
define anarchical society
a term used to describe the idea that although nation states are sovereign, global politics is anarchical in nature, nation states can choose to cooperate with each other in order to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes. this therefore creates a global society in spite of the anarchical nature of the international system
define security dilemma
the idea that as one state builds up its defences, others will respond by building up theire. this increases tension between the two states and even produces conflict
define complex interdependence
the idea that states and their fortunes are inextrincably linked
Cobweb model is used to explain this type of connectedness. It highlights the links between states, and the fact that the cobweb could disintegrate if one strand were to break.
define nation state
a sovereign state of which most of the citizens or subjects are united also by factors which define a nation, such as language or common descent
define realism
a theory that nation states are the most important and authoritative actors in global politics. as nation states persue their own self interest, and there is no authority greater than nation states that can enforce stability and peace, this means that international relations tend towards conflict
define society of states
-global society is a system in which states attempt to establish order by forming alliences, creating international institutions and laws
-Nation states do not surrender their sovereignty, but they accept that there are advantages to negotiating mutually beneficial outcomes to collective problems.
- e.g EU
define international anarchy
the concept that the world system is leaderless; there is no universal sovereign or worldwide government- and therefore nation-states must protect themselves and, in doing so, often clash with other states
-Arnold Wolfers uses the billiard ball model to explain this type of anarchy. The states impact one another, but ultimately their interests take precedence over IGOs.
what are the consequences of international anarchy?
- IGOs will be limited in their impact and effectiveness because states determine their success or failure
- states will also want to prevent IGOs from making decisions that are not in their interests
- international law is not always enforceable. in an anarchical world system, no international body can force states to sign up to international law
- international courts may be ignored or may not have decisive powers to investigate at all
- the absensence of any authority above nation states means that states are able to breach international law or commit hr abuses within their state without fear of being held accountable or stopped
- if world order is without authority, the most powerful states will try to gain enough power to become that authority and exert their own control over global politics
define global governance
attempts to bring government structures and authority to world politics in order to deal with common interests and challanges, nation states do not surrender their sovereignty, but they accept that there are advantages to negotiating mutually beneficial outcomes to collective problems
define IGO, NGO and regional body with examples
- IGO; an organisation that works with sovereign states fro a political purpose e.g united nations, IMF,WHO
- NGO: a nonprofit organisation that operates without governmental influence e.g oxfam, human rights watch
- regional body: consist of member states from a specific geographical area, focusing on region-specific matters and fostering cooperation within that particular region e.g ASEAN
what are the main beliefs of realists?
- the authoiry of IGOS should be limired. in this respect, global politics is an anarchical society, since nation-states retain the right to act in whichever way they wish
- since nation-states exist in a state of gloval anarchy, this creates a security dilemma
- states act rationally and usually prioritise defending their own national self itnerest against perceived threats
- all states will ultimately try and find ways of increasing their power and infleunce within the global political order
- the natural state of the world order is for states to compete with each other, making the most of their power
who are the 4 key realist thinkers?
- kenneth waltz
- hedley bull
- hans morgenthau
- john mearsheimer
what do the 4 realist thinkers believe?
- kenneth waltz: a defensive realist thinker, favoured bipolarity over multipolarity. believed bipolarity could lead to easier negotiations and therefore stability
- hedley bull: identified the idea of anarachical society in global politics. believed a society of states emerged within this anarchy to promote common interests and values
- hans morgenthau: a classical realist thinker. political man is a naturally selfish creature and will always try and dominate. moral considerations in global politics are less important than the national interest
- john mearsheimer: an offensive realist thinker. explained that conflict and competition for power between the great world powers will continue. states are trying to secure hegemony, meaning they want to dominate all other states within a region
what would realist attitudes towards the russian annexation of crimea in 2014 be?
- a realist may interpret the annexation as justified because russia was acting in self- interest to protect the valuable port of sevastopland a majority russian speaking population. additionally, it hihglights the failure of IGOs as russia, as a perm member, was able to veto the UNSC passing of a resolution
how is the 2003 Iraq invasion an example of realism in uk and us foreign policy?
- the us was prepared to go in alone without international support
- the war’s legality is questioned, with the Chilcot inquiry in 2016 concluding that it was ‘unjustified’
- the us and its allies were acting in what they perceived, and argued was their national interest
how powerful is the nation-state according to realism?
-reliasts believe that there is international anarchy (!!!!)
-john dalton developed a way of explaining realism and the idea of international anarchy through his billiard ball model.
This explains that when one ball (nation states) hits another, they spread out, they do not merge (due to the balls hard outer shell representing their sovereignty). they remain seperate entities. this model shows how international anarchy works- the balls are self-contained units that often clash against each other, but never merge. they can be grouped together, thier decisions may effect each other, but their independece and sovereignty is never affected.
what are the consequences of this international anarchy?
- IGOs will be limited in their effectiveness and impact because states are sovereign they are able to leave IGOS as they are dependent on the states that make them up
- states will prevent IGOs from making decisions which are not in their national interest because the resolutions of the UNSC is decided by perm members, therefore if not in their interest they will veto
- international law will not always be applied this is because states have the freedom to opt out or nit agree to certain treaties that make up internation law such as Russia in 2021 opting out of START, and ICJ/ICC rulings are not bidning due to state sovereignty
- internatinal courts may be ignored, or not have decisive powers to act at al, as seen with the iraq invasion and crimea, states can ignore decisions to not invade countries because rulings cannot be enforced
what do realists believe about the inevitability of conflict/security?
- realists beleive that conflict is inevitable owing to the desire of nation states ti promote thier own self interest. this is because states are likely to try to maximise their power and influence resorting to conflict if necessary. realists also hold that states are inherently selfish.
- states will also put their own security at risk and make conflict more likely when they try ti build up their own military defences to counter a perceived threat. this in turn encourages the opposing state to increase its own security (known as security dilemma)
- according to defensive realists, all states want ti portect themselves against threats from other states and non-state actors
what are the main beleifs of liberalism?
- states are not the only actors in global politics. a wider range of non-state actors have a positive role to play including NGOS and IGOS
- international law is possible and desirable in global politics and world order should be based in clearly agreed international rules. these can help to hold states accountable
- a states primary aim should not be to become more powerful, particulalrly at the expense of other states. liberals reject the idea of a zero-sum game
-there is mutual benefit in states cooperating and working together on matters such as security, trade and development. - democracy plays a key role in keeping states safe and peaceful. democratic states are less likely to fight each other
- international trade binds states together in common interests, making them more depending on each other, thereby reducing the likelihood of conflict
what do liberals beleive about human nature
- liberals have an optomistic view of human natire that translates to states. human nature is not fixed, and so states can improve and develop
- humans and therefore states are committed to individual liberty and freedom e.g on human rights
what do realists beleive about human nature
- human nature is naturally selfish and egoist and therefore states are only interested in their own national interests
- states are motivated by a need to survive. this is especially so in a global system where there is no guarantee that another state or IGO will help them
- human nature is fixed and dirven and cannot be changed, so states too are motivated by a desire to dominate and have power over others
what do liberals beleive about power
- states are aware of the limits of soft power. however, they may ise smart power, a combination of soft and hard power, to achieve their objectives
- the use of power, particularly military, can be counter-productive
- humans, and therefore states, prefer to work in partnership. international cooperation through IGOs is both desirous and possible
- soft power and smart power are important means by which states can achieve their inrended outcomes. they should be the first option, with hard power only used as a last resort
what do realists beleive about power
- threats and the use of force are particularly important types of hard power to possess and maximise, especially in a system of international anarchy
- the primary goal and motivation of states is to increase thier power
- powerful states will always be able to overcome weaker states
- when power is shared equally between states it creates a balance of power and this leads to stability (???)
- as states become more economically interdependent, the risk of conflict recedes, in this way, economic interdependence makes the entire global system more stable and peaceful
- military power is not the only form of significant power, economic power and free trade links can enable states to become richer, more stable and more secure
what do liberals beleive about conflict/secutiry
- conflcit is avoidable, and efforts should be made to prevent and reduce conflcit
- IGOs, such as the UN, offer a forum for conflict resolution
- conflict is a feature of global politics but must always be avoided and used only as a last resort
- states being bound together in close economic cooperation reduces the likelihood of conflict
- it is possible to impose order on humans and states from above through a rules-based system of international law
- in 2012, the EU was awarded the nobel peace prize for the post-war peace and security it brought to europe
what do realists beleive about security/security
- every state is potentially a threat to other states
- conflict is an unavoidable feature og global politics. it is sometimes necessary to defend national interests and increase a states power and infleunce
- defending internal security and stability is crucial. this is best done through well-defended borders, and clear and enforced laws
explain how the global financial crash of 2008-09 demonstrates complex interdependence
- the 2008-9 financial crises originated in the US triggering a lack of confidemnce in the banking system around the world, with stock markets crashing, people removing savings from banks and even the crashing of economies, as seen with greece leading to the country needing to be bailed out. this hihglights complex interdependence between states because, as seen with the cobweb model, if one strand breaks, the whole cobweb begins to disintegrate. hence, the crash that oringinated in the US that revirbirated around the globe and led to the iMF agreeing to inject funds into the international banking system, demonstrates complex interdependence
what is the kaniten triangle? (liberal)
- helps to understand there relationship between institutions, economics interdependence and democracy in contributing to peace
explain how each element of the triangle works?
- membership of IGOs often helps to build democracy within states. the EU for example, makes it a requirement for member states to meet certain democracy criteria. turkey has so far failed to bee accepted into the EU, partly because of weakness in its democracy
- democratic states offer a more stabile base with which other states can trade. they are more transparent and less prone to corruption, which is a factor that puts off potential foreign investors. democratic states are more likely to be peaceful and stable, making them attractive to FDI
- many IGOs have been founded to make economic interdependence easier. IGOs such as the EU and ASEAN offer their members a framework within which they can trade with each other freely, based on a commonly agreed set of rules. one state can potentially open up more trade links more quickly with other states through joining a block of nations rather than acting alone
arguments that democracy strengthens peace?
- wars miss be seen as legitimate and governments that initiate conflict are held accountable
- democratic states need to win elections and are unlikely to enter into conflict if it does not have domestic support
- intra-state conflict or civil war is less common in states that are internally democratic
- democratic states are more likely to be plugged into international systems of cooperation as opposed to rogue states
arguments that democracy doesn’t strengthens peace?
- during the 2003 Iraq war, 2 of thee most well-respected democratic states initiated wars that were later considered illegal
- bother george w. Bush and Blair won elections despite early signs of difficulty in Afghanistan and Iraq
- a democratic decision to avoid conflict may not result in peace, many suggest that the uk and us should have initiated military conflict against Assad in 2013
- no democracy is perfect, so some states that appear democratic may offer insufficient safeguards against conflict or poor decision making.
What is the EU? Give some examples of it being (in)effective
-The EU was formed under the 1992 Treaty of Maastricht, and now has 27 members.
-Recent agreements include the 2024 New Zealand-EU Free Trade Agreement. It has also established a single currency, and recieved a Noble Peace Prize 2012.
-In December 2023, the EU & Mercosur customs union fell through when Macron withdrew his support a few days before.
What is the UN? Give an example of it being (in)effective.
-UN was formed just after WW2, to maintain peace and security. It has 193, and is home to organisations like the ICJ.
-Biden’s rejoining of the Paris Agreement in 2021.
-However, Israel has consistently ignored the ICJ’s ruling against their occupation of the Gaza Strip.
What is the G7/8? Give an example of it being (in)effective.
-The G7 was formed to join 7 major powers (Can, Fr, Ger, Ital, Jap, UK, US) in an alliance promoting shared values. Russia was added in 1997, but removed in 2014.
-At Hiroshima summit in 2023, it was agreed that $50bn wworthof aid would be sent to Ukraine, and that they would stand against Russia.
-Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 showed its limited impact.
What is the IMF? What is its impact?
-International Monetary Fund. This aimed to create institutions that would stabilise and organise the global economy.
-It has been responsible for resolving global financial crises, and was instrumental in 2008 crash.
What is the World Bank? What is its impact?
-An organisation in which member states contribute a fund that provides loans to developing countries.
-The World Bank played a major role in the UN’s MDGs.
-Has given loans to places like India, who owe $38.3bn.
What is NATO? What is its impact?
-NATO was founded as a collective militaty alliance to act as a counter-weight to the Soviet Union.
-NATO has gone from 12 to 28 signatory states.
-It has been increasingly influential in military operations outside Western Europe, like Afghanisation.
What is the African Union? What is its impact?
-Formed in 1963, as an organisation for African Unity to act as a political and economic union for all African states.
-It has created a forum in which African states can speak with greater influence on the world stage, and has carried out successful peace-keeping operations in Sudan and Somalia.
What is ASEAN? What is its impact?
-Association of Southeast Asian Nations.
-It was founded to promote economic cooperation and development between SE Asian states.
-It has enables SE Asia to form a bloc against China’s growing influence. It also negotiated a free-trade agreement with China in 2002 worth 10% of the global economy.
How has igo impact been limited?
-2020 Brexit deal shows that membership of IGOs is temporary, and states can withdraw when they are no longer beneficial.
-EU’s single currency is not a flat-line. While new members must adopt it, original member still dont use it.
-The African Union has not had the same impact as the EU, in terms of integration and intervention.
-UN’s involvement in recent wars has been limited, particularly ICJ’s ruling over Israel.
How have igos been effective?
-UN comprises 193 states. NATO has 30.
-The UN has many different organisations, like the UNSC & ICJ, that maintain peace.
-UN made the MDGs, strengthening attempts to maintain sustainable development.
-IMF was influential in resolving 2008.
-EU has single currency.
-AU has had successful intervention in Darfur, Somalia etc.
